Critical realism is emerging as a viable philosophical paradigm for conducting social science research, and has been proposed as an alternative to the more prevalent paradigms of positivism and interpretivism. Few papers, however, have offered clear guidance for applying this philosophy to actual research methodologies. Under critical realism, a causal explanation for a given phenomenon is inferred by explicitly identifying the means by which structural entities and contextual conditions interact to generate a given set of events. Consistent with this view of causality, we propose a set of methodological principles for conducting and evaluating critical realism-based explanatory case study research within the information systems field. The principles are derived directly from the ontological and epistemological assumptions of critical realism. We demonstrate the utility of each of the principles through examples drawn from existing critical realist case studies. The article concludes by discussing the implications of critical realism based research for IS research and practice.

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Principles for conducting critical realist case study research in information systems

In this paper, critical realism and activity theory are compared within the context of theorizing technology-mediated organizational change. An activity theoretic analysis of the implementation of large-scale disruptive information systems in a public sector setting (in particular concerning paramedic treatment of heart attack patients and ambulance dispatch work activity) is used to illustrate how activity theory makes a significant contribution to critical realism, by (1) locating technology within "activity systems" and theorizing change through contradictions and congruencies within those systems; (2) developing recent critical realism-inspired theorization of the "inscription" of cultural and social relations within technology; and (3) developing recent insights of critical realist researchers regarding the way in which the performance management agenda is mediated through IS.

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How should technology-mediated organizational change be explained? a comparison of the contributions of critical realism and activity theory

This article relates Archer's morphogenetic approach, derived from the philosophical tradition of critical realism, to the use of information and communication technology in organizations. Three gains are seen to accrue from this approach: greater clarity about the material properties of technology, links to broader structural conditions arising from the conceptualization of the relationship between agency and structure, and the potential to explore the importance of reflexivity in contemporary organizations, especially in conditions of the widespread use of information and communication technology. The importance of disaggregating the artifacts of this technology into levels and features is stressed to enable analysis to explore the specific impacts of particular combinations. This is developed through a discussion of data warehousing in connection with the attention being given to the importance of analytics in organizational strategies. Key features are in wider aspects of the cultural and structural context, demonstrating the fruitfulness of a morphogenetic approach.

Technology, Organization, and Structure---A Morphogenetic Approach

The transformational model of social activity (TMSA), in many ways the centerpiece of critical realism, has been widely used in areas of information systems research. However, little has been done so far to develop a systematic theory of the nature, position, and identity of technological objects within the context of the TMSA. Our aim in this paper is to fill this gap, paying particular attention to the important category of nonmaterial technological objects that lie at the heart of modern information systems.

Technological objects, social positions, and the transformational model of social activity

Critical realism has emerged as an alternative to positivist and interpretive research during the past decade. Yet, the number of empirical studies based on this perspective has so far been limited. This indicates a need for a more explicit method for critical realist data analysis. To address this, we extend former research on critical realist methodology by presenting a framework for identifying and understanding causal structures in critical realist studies, termed mechanisms. The framework consists of steps involved in identifying structural components of a mechanism, how these components interact to produce to an outcome, and contextual influences on this outcome. We illustrate the application of the framework through an example of the identification of IS innovation mechanisms in a case study in the airline industry. Overall, we argue that the mechanism approach can improve empirical studies in the IS field, by providing ontological depth, creative thinking and more precise explanations.

In search of mechanisms . conducting a critical realist data analysis

This article seeks to address the dearth of practical examples of research in the area by proposing that critical realism be adopted as the underlying research philosophy for enterprise systems evaluation. We address some of the implications of adopting such an approach by discussing the evaluation and implementation of a number of automated performance measurement systems APMS. Such systems are a recent evolution within the context of enterprise information systems. They collect operational data from integrated systems to generate values for key performance indicators, which are delivered directly to senior management. The creation and delivery of these data are fully automated, precluding manual intervention by middle or line management. Whilst these systems appear to be a logical progression in the exploitation of the available rich, real-time data, the statistics for APMS projects are disappointing. An understanding of the reasons is elusive and little researched. We describe how critical realism can provide a useful "underlabourer" for such research, by "clearing the ground a little... removing some of the rubbish that lies in the way of knowledge" Locke, 1894, p. 14. The implications of such an underlabouring role are investigated. Whilst the research is still underway, the article indicates how a critical realist foundation is assisting the research process.

Making the Case for Critical Realism: Examining the Implementation of Automated Performance Management Systems

Intellectual capital, the balanced scorecard and integrated performance management systems are tools which support the development and management of corporate strategy. This paper presents an approach used in implementing a web based data warehouse utilising Balanced Scorecards. It describes how “Stewarts” Ten principles for Managing Intellectual Capital enhance and assist with implementation of Kaplan and Norton’s Balanced Scorecard and support an organisations knowledge management strategy. This paper presents the reflections of an “outsider looking in”; one of the authors has participated in the development of the data warehousing system within his role as Technical Project Manager for an external organisation constructing the system.

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John Myles

Papers

Making the Case for Critical Realism: Examining the Implementation of Automated Performance Management Systems

Managing intellectual capital through the balanced scorecard