. During the last fifty years ecology has matured as a scientific discipline. In this paper I analyse the temporal development of the paradigm based on physical systems (the ecosystem paradigm), and the evolutionary ecology paradigm. I first analyse the contents of 61 textbooks to calculate the relative importance of ecosystem and evolutionary ecology in the training of new generations of ecologists. Results indicate that the evolutionary approach is becoming more important since 1980, and now most textbooks dedicate 10–20% of their pages to evolutionary concepts. In a second analysis I searched the names of ecology departments in universities around the world, and found out conspicuous differences between USA, where 43% of addresses associate ecology and evolution or behaviour on the same department, and Europe, where only 10% of ecology departments also include a reference to evolution or behaviour in their name. In both analyses Spain seems to follow only the ecosystem paradigm, because Spanish textbooks dedicate almost no pages to evolutionary concepts, and there is not a single university department that includes ecology and evolution. A further bibliometric study confirmed that Spanish ecologists prefer to publish their research in general ecology journals, and are under-represented in evolutionary ecology journals. I discuss the importance of historical factors on the development of paradigms of ecology, and the special case of Spain, likely due to the influence of pioneers working in oceanography, limnology and geography.

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Trends in the evolution of ecology: “Spain is different”

The Systems Approach Framework (SAF) is a methodological framework designed to enhance the efficacy of human decision-making processes within social-ecological systems with regard to sustainability. The SAF was applied in two case studies in the coastal zone of Catalonia, in two separate European Commission Framework Programme projects entitled “Science and Policy Integration for Coastal System Assessment” (SPICOSA) and “Vectors of Change in Oceans and Seas-marine Life, Impact on Economic Sectors" (VECTORS). During the SPICOSA application, a common issue of interest to most stakeholders was the water quality (harmful bacteria and water clarity) of the local city beaches, particularly following combined sewer overflow events, and mitigating this impact by using stormwater collectors. Water quality influences the beach users’ decision whether to stay at the beach or to leave, thus affecting the revenue received by the bars and restaurants on the beach front. A social-ecological model was constructed using the methodology outlined in the SAF to represent this issue, so that it could be used as a tool for deliberation between the stakeholders. The model output implies that the stormwater collectors have been useful in improving beach water quality in Barcelona, but there will be diminished returns in constructing more. The value of the beach is clearly large in terms of both non-market value and revenues generated in the nearby bars and restaurants. However, the impact changes in water quality would have on the recreational appeal of the beach is estimated to be low and further research is recommended to determine beach users’ sensitivity to beach closures (bacteria limit exceeded) and turbidity. At the beginning of the VECTORS project, stakeholders who had participated during the previous SAF application expressed a lack of willingness to engage due to a lack of human resources. The scientific team therefore chose to continue the application with the aspiration of demonstrating the SAF model and results at a later date if the stakeholders found the required resources to engage with the process. There is a general perception that jellyfish abundances are increasing along the Catalan coast. Local authorities are concerned about the stranding events and arrivals of jellyfish to beaches and believe it could reduce the recreational appeal of the beaches. Previous studies also demonstrate the predation of jellyfish (Pelagia noctiluca ephyrae) upon some small pelagic fish larvae (Engraulis encrasicolus). Small pelagics are the principal source of revenue for the local fisheries. A social-ecological model was created in order to capture the effects of changes in abundance of Pelagia noctiluca upon the local fisheries, the tourist industry and the wider economy.Various future scenarios for different abundances of jellyfish blooms were run. Given the changes that these scenarios would cause on the regional gross domestic product and employment, this study concludes that the overall impact of either of these scenarios on the economy would not be significant at the regional scale. The inclusion of stakeholders in the SAF methodology is rightly fundamental, but in practice, it can be extremely difficult to persuade key stakeholders to participate, and this is a flaw in the SAF which needs addressing. SAF Application model builders are dependent on stakeholders sharing important data or knowledge but this may be withheld for a variety of reasons including, but not limited to, lack of resources to participate, disinterest, and concern about how the results will be used. The SAF is a well-structured methodology for cases where a mathematical model is both relevant and feasible and should be considered as a useful step-by-step guide for managing coastal zone systems towards sustainability.

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Modelling Social-Ecological Systems in the Catalan Coastal Zones

Since few years, sustainable development has obtained the statut of concept. In the scientific vocabulary, it means that there's a research program to identify its origin, nature, laws (principles) and consequences. Today that scientific synthesis drives us to think about the relevance and modalities of education for sustainable development. In other words, we must bring out transversal knowledge in three areas of sustainable development (environmental, social, economics). This quest is only possible if ecology is able to absorb the economy, and if it becomes a social science. Indeed, seeking to emancipate itself from the forces of nature, the economy has built rules (optimization's program) and tools (markets) that have nothing to concern with the adjustment procedures of the biosphere and the sociosphere.

Comment construire des savoirs transversaux face à l'excès d'économie ?

De nombreux ecrits des membres du Groupe des Dix portent sur des questions economiques. L’un des principaux themes de reflexion de ce collectif attache a l’interdisciplinarite a ete de repenser la notion de developpement en l’inscrivant dans le prolongement de l’evolution biologique, en mettant en evidence sa multidimensionnalite ainsi que la necessite de lier cet objectif avec celui de la sauvegarde de l’environnement. Certains de ces auteurs, comme Rene Passet et Joel de Rosnay, sont alles plus loin encore en proposant de redefinir la discipline economique a la lumiere des enseignements des sciences du vivant. S’ils appellent tous les deux de leurs vœux l’emergence d’une bioeconomie, nous montrons que celle-ci revet des sens assez differents.

Dossier : Le groupe des Dix, des précurseurs de l'interdisciplinarité – L’économie au prisme du Groupe des Dix : d’une bioéconomie l’autre

把数据基于多来源，这份报纸在 Yeyahu 沼泽地自然保护区评估了生态的服务的经济价值，中国北京。沼泽地的生态的服务包括了煤气的规定，水质量改进，生物多样性维护，侵蚀控制，水供应，娱乐机会，原料供应和存在价值。多重常规评估方法被用来计算八种沼泽地服务的价值。结果证明重要价值来自生物多样性维护和娱乐机会。主要原因如下。第一， Yeyahu 沼泽地自然保护区是为候鸟鸟的产地，并且管理付了更多的努力保护宝贵的鸟。第二，人口在北京大。人们喜欢在外面去并且享受了自然、人工的沼泽地场面。同时，大多数人被准备支付沼泽地保存。植被盖子的衰落做了侵蚀控制的经济价值最低。当水资源和 deteriorative 水质量的精神病医生引起了水的经济价值时，供应降低。评估结果能帮助决策人理解 Yeyahu 沼泽地自然保护区的现在的地位并且为战略决定提供一个科学基础。

John Phillipson

Papers

Environment, Power, and Society

Grundriss der Okologie: Unter besondere Berucksichtigung der Tierwelt