Recently, a debate has begun over whether in-class laptops aid or hinder learning. While some research demonstrates that laptops can be an important learning tool, anecdotal evidence suggests more and more faculty are banning laptops from their classrooms because of perceptions that they distract students and detract from learning. The current research examines the nature of in-class laptop use in a large lecture course and how that use is related to student learning. Students completed weekly surveys of attendance, laptop use, and aspects of the classroom environment. Results showed that students who used laptops in class spent considerable time multitasking and that the laptop use posed a significant distraction to both users and fellow students. Most importantly, the level of laptop use was negatively related to several measures of student learning, including self-reported understanding of course material and overall course performance. The practical implications of these findings are discussed.

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In-class laptop use and its effects on student learning

There are now a large number of initiatives designed to make laptops with wireless connectivity available to all students in schools. This paper synthesizes findings from research and evaluation studies that analyzed implementation and effects of one-to-one initiatives from a range of countries. Factors related to successful implementation reported in the research include extensive teacher professional development, access to technical support, and positive teacher attitudes toward student technology use. Outcome studies with rigorous designs are few, but those studies that did measure outcomes consistently reported positive effects on technology use, technology literacy, and writing skills.

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Implementation and Effects Of One-to-One Computing Initiatives: A Research Synthesis

Technology use, self-directed learning, student engagement and academic performance

1. INTRODUCTION Laptop computers are widely used in many college classrooms today (Weaver and Nilson, 2005); however, there is an ongoing debate regarding the purpose and value of laptop initiative programs that encourage or even require students to purchase laptops, and the role of laptops in classrooms. Although the use of laptops in the classroom has the potential to motivate and contribute to student learning (Efaw, Hampton, Martinez, Smith, 2004; Trimmel and Bachmann, 2004), they also have the potential to negatively impact student attention, motivation, student-teacher interactions, and academic achievement (Young, 2006; Meierdiercks, 2005). Previous research has shown that students who bring laptops to class often engage in electronic multitasking that involves switching their cognitive focus back and forth between tasks that are directly related to the lecture material and tasks that are not directly related to the lecture material (Fried, 2008; Hembrooke and Gay, 2003; Grace-Martin and Gay, 2001). Although many students may believe they can switch back and forth between different tasks with no serious consequences to their academic performance, multitasking has been shown to dramatically increase the number of memory errors and the processing time required to "learn" topics that involve a significant cognitive load (Rubenstein, Meyer, and Evans, 2001). Attempting to "learn" while engaged in multitasking behavior can result in the acquisition of less flexible knowledge that cannot be easily recalled and/or applied in new situations (Foerde, Knowlton, and Poldrack, 2006). Furthermore, it takes time and effort to refocus after switching from one task to another (Bailey and Konstan, 2006). It can be argued, that multitasking is a natural part of the modern classroom and work environments and students need to learn to multitask effectively--especially in today's high tech world. Research that investigates how students use laptops in the classroom and what affects laptop usage has on performance outcomes does exist, but there is a lack of research that focuses on the unstructured or unsanctioned use of computers in the classroom, that explicitly measures learning outcomes, and that incorporates actual use data (1). In general, multitasking has been shown to negatively impact productivity (Foerde, Knowlton, and Poldrack, 2006; Rubenstein, Meyer, and Evans, 2001); however, the affects of different types of computer-based multitasking behaviors in the classroom have not been measured and examined in detail to date. This paper presents the results of an exploratory study that investigates different types of student multitasking behavior while using laptop computers in an unstructured manner during class. A number of novel contributions are made. First, we collect both self reported laptop usage data and actual laptop usage data from spyware installed on student laptops. This allows us to directly measure student laptop use, and then compare student's actual usage to self-reported usage. Second, we categorize different types of software multitasking activities and identify which activities are performed most frequently and for how long. We then examine how different categories of distractive software activity impact class performance. We define distractive multitasking as tasks or activities where cognitive resources are used to process information that is not directly related to the course material. Productive multitasking is defined as tasks or activities that are directly related to completing a primary task associated with the course material. Finally, we introduce quantifiable metrics for measuring the frequency, duration, and extent of student multitasking behavior in class, and evaluate the impact this behavior has on academic performance. Three primary research questions are addressed. (1) How does the frequency of multitasking related to each multitasking category affect learning outcomes? …

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Examining the Affects of Student Multitasking with Laptops during the Lecture

Over the past decade, the number of one-to-one laptop programs in schools has steadily increased. Despite the growth of such programs, there is little consensus about whether they contribute to improved educational outcomes. This article reviews 65 journal articles and 31 doctoral dissertations published from January 2001 to May 2015 to examine the effect of one-to-one laptop programs on teaching and learning in K–12 schools. A meta-analysis of 10 studies examines the impact of laptop programs on students’ academic achievement, finding significantly positive average effect sizes in English, writing, mathematics, and science. In addition, the article summarizes the impact of laptop programs on more general teaching and learning processes and perceptions as reported in these studies, again noting generally positive findings.

Learning in One-to-One Laptop Environments A Meta-Analysis and Research Synthesis

Effects on cognitive performance, social atmosphere, communication, motivation and aspects of strain were investigated when laptops were integrated in classrooms. According to a quasi-experimental design 27 laptop students were compared with 22 non-laptop students from the same high school, aged 17-18 years. Results of tests and questionnaires showed that laptop students had better spatial abilities and computer skills, furthermore higher participation, learning interest, motivation and pressure to perform were found in laptop classrooms. However, laptop students experienced greater physical discomfort, particularly in their arms, but concerning creativity, social intelligence and mental stress no group differences occurred. Results indicate that laptops integrated in teaching can enhance learning and motivation in schools, at least after 1.7 years of introduction, but health risks must be considered.

Julia Bachmann

Papers

Cognitive, Social, Motivational and Health Aspects of Students in Laptop Classrooms.