Sikkim, a tiny Himalayan state situated in the north-eastern region of India, records limited research on the climate change. Understanding the changes in climate based on the perceptions of local communities can provide important insights for the preparedness against the unprecedented consequences of climate change. A total of 228 households in 12 different villages of Sikkim, India, were interviewed using eight climate change indicators. The results from the public opinions showed a significant increase in temperature compared to a decade earlier, winters are getting warmer, water springs are drying up, change in concept of spring-water recharge (locally known as Mul Phutnu), changes in spring season, low crop yields, incidences of mosquitoes during winter, and decrease in rainfall in last 10 years. In addition, study also showed significant positive correlations of increase in temperature with other climate change indicators viz. spring-water recharge concept (R
 2 = 0.893), warmer winter (R
 2 = 0.839), drying up of water springs (R
 2 = 0.76), changes in spring season (R
 2 = 0.68), low crop yields (R
 2 = 0.68), decrease in rainfall (R
 2 = 0.63), and incidences of mosquitoes in winter (R
 2 = 0.50). The air temperature for two meteorological stations of Sikkim indicated statistically significant increasing trend in mean minimum temperature and mean minimum winter temperature (DJF). The observed climate change is consistent with the people perceptions. This information can help in planning specific adaptation strategies to cope with the impacts of climate change by framing village-level action plan.

Climate perceptions of local communities validated through scientific signals in Sikkim Himalaya, India

Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) is an economically valuable, ecologically adaptive, and agro-climatically suitable perennial cash crop grown under tree shade in the eastern Himalayas. In Sikkim, India, the focus of this study, large-cardamom production peaked early in the 21st century, making India the largest producer in the world, but dropped sharply after 2004; Nepal is now the largest producer. This crop is an important part of the local economy, contributing on average 29.2% of the income of households participating in this study. Farmers and extension agencies have worked to reverse its decline since 2007, and thus, there is a steady increase in production and production area. After reviewing the literature, we carried out extensive field research in 6 locations in Sikkim in 2011–2013 to investigate the causes of this decline and measures being undertaken to reverse it, using a combination of rapid rural appraisal, participatory rural appraisal, structured questionnaire, and field sampling techniq...

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Declining Large-Cardamom Production Systems in the Sikkim Himalayas: Climate Change Impacts, Agroeconomic Potential, and Revival Strategies

The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, ICIMOD, is a regional knowledge development and learning centre serving the eight regional member countries of the Hindu Kush Himalayas – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan – and based in Kathmandu, Nepal. Globalization and climate change have an increasing influence on the stability of fragile mountain ecosystems and the livelihoods of mountain people. ICIMOD aims to assist mountain people to understand these changes, adapt to them, and make the most of new opportunities, while addressing upstream-downstream issues. We support regional transboundary programmes through partnership with regional partner institutions, facilitate the exchange of experience, and serve as a regional knowledge hub. We strengthen networking among regional and global centres of excellence. Overall, we are working to develop an economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystem to improve the living standards of mountain populations and to sustain vital ecosystem services for the billions of people living downstream – now, and for the future.

Large cardamom farming in changing climatic and socioeconomic conditions in the Sikkim Himalayas.

Himalaya is endowed with a great diversity of medicinal plants, which have been used extensively for curing a number of ailments since time immemorial. However, climatic perturbations in the region have imposed severe threat to their survival, status in wild and production of bioactive metabolites. Changes in climatic conditions include variation in different abiotic (light, water, temperature) and biotic (weed, pathogen) factors, which are known to play a key role in plant growth and development. Increased global temperature, erratic monsoon, recurrent drought/flooding events, increased insect-pest attacks, etc., have negatively affected the phenology, morpho-physiological and biochemical responses of plants. However, to date, a collective record on the occurrence of various environmental stresses in the medicinal plants is not available. Thus, this review provides comprehensive and updated information on this topic to facilitate thorough understanding of response of Himalayan plants to different stress factors. This will help in adapting potential disease management strategies, identifying resilient accessions and optimum environmental conditions for plant growth and metabolite production. Further, the review will provide valuable insight to conservation biologists, plant pathologists, plant breeders and biotechnologists about current disease and stress trends in Himalayan medicinal plants, so that location specific management practices can be adopted and/or standardized.

Environmental stresses in Himalayan medicinal plants: research needs and future priorities

Investigations on actinomycetes are profoundly significant area of research since they form major resource for bioactive compounds, antimicrobials, anticancer agents, immunosuppressants, and biological control agents. A total of 59 actinomycetes were isolated from the soil sample collected from Domang, Lachung, North Sikkim, Sikkim, India. Out of the total isolates, 26 isolates with unique and distinct characteristic features were selected and analysed for antimicrobial activity as well as extracellular enzyme production. Out of 26 isolates, 17 (66%) isolates exhibited different level of growth inhibition against the test microorganism. 12 (47%) isolates showed antifungal activity and six (23%) isolates showed antibacterial activity. Most of the isolates showed antifungal activity. Isolate RCS260 was found to exhibit maximum growth inhibition (60%) against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides MTCC 8021. Isolate RCS252 showed maximum growth inhibition (67%) against Bacillus subtilis MTCC 441. Out of 26 isolates, 14 (54%) isolates exhibited chitinase activity, 25 (96%) isolates showed cellulase production, 20 (77%) isolates produced amylase enzyme and 17 (65%) isolates showed positive for protease activity. Potential isolate RCS260 has been characterized and identified as Streptomyces vinaceus strain RCS260 while isolate RCS252 was identified as Kitasatospora aburavienis strain RCS252. The antagonistic profile of strain RCS260 highlights its potential as antifungal agent against phytopathogens.

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Actinomycetes from Soil of Lachung, a Pristine High Altitude Region of Sikkim Himalaya, Their Antimicrobial Potentiality and Production of Industrially Important Enzymes

The pathogen causing blight and severe devastation of large cardamom in Sikkim and Darjeeling Hills was isolated and identified as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz) Sacc {perfect state Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) Spauld & Schrenk} We propose the name, Colletotrichum blight for the disease

Identity of Colletotrichum infections in large cardamom ( Amomum subulatum Roxb.)

Surveys conducted in 17 locations in North East India indicated that the incidence of Phoma leaf spot disease of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum.) caused by P. hedericola ranged from 5% to 15%. Six fungicides were evaluated in vitro against the pathogen and carbendazim 50WP was significantly effective at allconcentrations (0.05% - 0.15%) tested followed by carbendazim + mancozeb 75WP (0.1% - 0.4%).

Incidence of Phoma leaf spot disease of large cardamom ( Amomum subulatum Roxb.) and in vitro evaluation of fungicides against the pathogen

Commercially available biological control agents (Trichoderma harzianum, T. viride, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis), aqueous extracts of plant species (Artemisia vulgaris and Schima wallichi) and four fungicides were screened in vitro at Tadong (Sikkim), against Pestalotiopsis sp. infecting large cardamom (Amomum subulatum). B. subtilis showed significantly high inhibition (62.6%) of the pathogen followed by T. viride (50.9%). Inhibition of mycelial growth of Pestalotiopsis sp. by combined aqueous extract of A. vulgaris and S. wallichi varied from 12.2% to 74.5% and was significantly higher at 15% concentration. Inhibition of the pathogen increased with increase in concentration of the extract. The growth inhibition of the pathogen increased with increase in concentration of all fungicides tested. Carbendazim 50WP was significantly effective at all concentrations tested (0.05%-0.15%). The study indicated the potential of using biocontrol agents and botanicals for eco-friendly management of Pestalotiopsis sp. infecting large cardamom and fungicides in case the incidence is severe.

In vitro evaluation of biocontrol agents, botanicals and fungicides against Pestalotiopsis sp. infecting large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.).

Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) is affected by various fungal diseases. Of these, blight caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Sacc. (perfect state Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) spaulding & Schrenk) is one of the major production constraints. In order to assess the loss due to Colletotrichum blight, yield of affected plants of two cultivars, Varlangey and Sawney was recorded. Yields were also recorded from healthy plants of the same cultivars for comparison. There was 46.8% reduction in the dry yield of infected plants of Varlangey and 34.5% reduction in dry yield of Sawney as compared to healthy plants. The infected plants of Varlangey were found dead in the first year itself causing 100% loss. Lack of maturity of seeds, increased husk weight of fresh capsules and decreased weight of dried capsules were observed in the infected plants.

K. A. Saju

Papers

Identity of Colletotrichum infections in large cardamom ( Amomum subulatum Roxb.)

Incidence of Phoma leaf spot disease of large cardamom ( Amomum subulatum Roxb.) and in vitro evaluation of fungicides against the pathogen

In vitro evaluation of biocontrol agents, botanicals and fungicides against Pestalotiopsis sp. infecting large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.).

Yield loss of large cardamom ( Amomum subulatum Roxb.) due to Colletotrichum blight in Sikkim

Yield loss of large cardamom due to Colletotrichum blight in Sikkim.