A pot trial was carried out to investigate the effect of biochar produced from greenwaste by pyrolysis on the yield of radish (Raphanus sativus var. Long Scarlet) and the soil quality of an Alfisol. Three rates of biochar (10, 50 and 100 t/ha) with and without additional nitrogen application (100 kg N/ha) were investigated. The soil used in the pot trial was a hardsetting Alfisol (Chromosol) (0–0.1 m) with a long history of cropping. In the absence of N fertiliser, application of biochar to the soil did not increase radish yield even at the highest rate of 100 t/ha. However, a significant biochar × nitrogen fertiliser interaction was observed, in that higher yield increases were observed with increasing rates of biochar application in the presence of N fertiliser, highlighting the role of biochar in improving N fertiliser use efficiency of the plant. For example, additional increase in DM of radish in the presence of N fertiliser varied from 95% in the nil biochar control to 266% in the 100 t/ha biochar-amended soils. A slight but significant reduction in dry matter production of radish was observed when biochar was applied at 10 t/ha but the cause is unclear and requires further investigation. Significant changes in soil quality including increases in pH, organic carbon, and exchangeable cations as well as reduction in tensile strength were observed at higher rates of biochar application (>50 t/ha). Particularly interesting are the improvements in soil physical properties of this hardsetting soil in terms of reduction in tensile strength and increases in field capacity.

Agronomic values of greenwaste biochar as a soil amendment

The amendment of two agricultural soils with two biochars derived from the slow pyrolysis of papermill waste was assessed in a glasshouse study. Characterisation of both biochars revealed high surface area (115 m2 g−1) and zones of calcium mineral agglomeration. The biochars differed slightly in their liming values (33% and 29%), and carbon content (50% and 52%). Molar H/C ratios of 0.3 in the biochars suggested aromatic stability. At application rates of 10 t ha−1 in a ferrosol both biochars significantly increased pH, CEC, exchangeable Ca and total C, while in a calcarosol both biochars increased C while biochar 2 also increased exchangeable K. Biochars reduced Al availability (ca. 2 cmol (+) kg−1 to <0.1 cmol (+) kg−1) in the ferrosol. The analysis of biomass production revealed a range of responses, due to both biochar characteristics and soil type. Both biochars significantly increased N uptake in wheat grown in fertiliser amended ferrosol. Concomitant increase in biomass production (250% times that of control) therefore suggested improved fertiliser use efficiency. Likewise, biochar amendment significantly increased biomass in soybean and radish in the ferrosol with fertiliser. The calcarosol amended with fertiliser and biochar however gave varied crop responses: Increased soybean biomass, but reduced wheat and radish biomass. No significant effects of biochar were shown in the absence of fertiliser for wheat and soybean, while radish biomass increased significantly. Earthworms showed preference for biochar-amended ferrosol over control soils with no significant difference recorded for the calcarosol. The results from this work demonstrate that the agronomic benefits of papermill biochars have to be verified for different soil types and crops.

Effects of biochar from slow pyrolysis of papermill waste on agronomic performance and soil fertility

There is growing recognition for the need to develop sensitive indicators of soil quality that reflect the effects of land management on soil and assist land managers in promoting long-term sustainability of terrestrial ecosystems. Eleven soil enzymes assays were investigated relative to soil management and soil quality at two study sites. Soils were sampled from the Vegetable Crop Rotation Plots (VRP) (established in 1989 in humid western Oregon) which compared continuous fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and four winter cover crop treatments in annual rotation with a summer vegetable crop. The second site was the Residue Utilization Plots (RUP) (initiated in 1931 in semi-arid Eastern Oregon) which is under a winter wheat–summer fallow and compared inorganic N, green manure and beef manure treatments. Soil also was sampled at the research center from a nearby grass pasture that is on the same soil type. The enzymes were α- and β-glucosidase, α- and β-galactosidase, amidase, arylsulfatase, deaminase, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis, invertase, cellulase and urease. At both sites there was a significant treatment effect for each enzyme tested (P<0.05). Enzyme activities (except α- and β-glucosidase and α- and β-galactosidase) were generally higher in continuous grass fields than in cultivated fields. In cultivated systems, activity was higher where cover crops or organic residues were added as compared to treatments without organic amendments. It was found that use of air-dried soil samples provided the same ranking of treatments by a number of enzyme assays and would facilitate adoption of these assays for practical or commercial applications. Deaminase was not a good indicator of soil quality, while β-glucosidase was suggested as an assay that reflects soil management effects and has microbial ecological significance because of its role in the C cycle.

Field management effects on soil enzyme activities

Impacts of woodchip biochar additions on greenhouse gas production and sorption/degradation of two herbicides in a Minnesota soil.

The fungi-to-bacteria ratio in soil ecological concepts and its application to explain the effects of land use changes have gained increasing attention over the past decade. Four different main approaches for quantifying the fungal and bacterial contribution to microbial tissue can be distinguished: (1) microscopic methods, (2) selective inhibition, (3) specific cell membrane components and (4) specific cell wall components. In this review, the different methods were compared and we hypothesized that all these approaches result in similar values for the fungal and bacterial contribution to total microbial biomass, activity, and residues (dead microbial tissue) if these methods are evenly reliable for the estimation of fungal biomass. The fungal contribution to the microbial biomass or respiration varied widely between 2 and 95% in different data sets published over the past three decades. However, the majority of the literature data indicated that fungi dominated microbial biomass, respiration or non-biomass microbial residues, with mean percentages obtained by the different methodological approaches varying between 35 and 76% in different soil groups, i.e. arable, grassland, and forest soils and litter layers. Microscopic methods generally gave the lowest average values, especially in arable and grasslands soils. Very low ratios in fungal biomass C-to-ergosterol obtained by microscopic methods suggest a severe underestimation of fungal biomass by certain stains. Relatively consistent ratios of ergosterol to linoleic acid (18:2ω6,9) indicate that both cell membrane components are useful indicators for saprotrophic and ectomycorrhizal fungi. More quantitative information on the PLFA content of soil bacteria and the 16:1ω5 content of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is urgently required to fully exploit the great potential of PLFA measurements. The most consistent results have been obtained from the analysis of fungal glucosamine and bacterial muramic acid in microbial residues. Component-specific δ 13 C analyses of PLFA and amino sugars are a promising prospect for the near future.

Quantitative assessment of the fungal contribution to microbial tissue in soil

Long-term experiments (1, 2 and 20 months) were made to measure the effect of storage on soil microbial activities. Five soils differing in texture and with different C-content: sandy 1.1%, loamy 1.4%, forest mineral layers 5.1%, peaty 11.9% and forest organic layers 34.1% were stored moist at 4, −18 or −140°C or air-dry at 21°C. Indicators for microbiul activity included, ATP, heat output and fluorescein diacctate hydrolysis (FDA), showed different effects. The ATP-content in most cases decreased markedly, except in peaty soil and in forest organic layers stored for 20 months at −18, −140 or 21°C. The heat output was enhanced extremely in peaty soil (except at 4°C) and slightly in forest organic layers stored at 21 or −140°C for 20 months. In the other soils storage caused a marked reduction of heat output. FDA-hydrolysis did not change during 2 months in most cases, except in peaty soil, forest mineral layers (−140 and 21°C) and forest organic layers (21°C) where it increased significantly during storage. In most cases, air drying caused a significant decrease in the quantity of these indicators of microbial activity. The ditferences between the effects on samples stored at 4, −18 or −140°C were slight and in most cases insignificant. The adenylate energy charge (AEC) measured after 20 months of storage was markedly lower in samples of sandy soil and soils derived from forest stored air-dry, while in loamy soil and in peaty soil the results were less clear. The highest AEC values were obtained in loamy soil and forest organic layers stored at −18°C. The signature indicators muramie acid, glucosamine and crgosterol increased after 20 months storage except for crgosterol in sandy soil, loamy soil, forest mineral layers and forest organic layers (21°C), where it decreased rapidly.

K. Stepper

Papers

Microbial activity measured in soils stored under different temperature and humidity conditions