Trinucleotide expansion underlies several human diseases. Expansion occurs during multiple stages of human development in different cell types, and is sensitive to the gender of the parent who transmits the repeats. Repair and replication models for expansions have been described, but we do not know whether the pathway involved is the same under all conditions and for all repeat tract lengths, which differ among diseases. Currently, researchers rely on bacteria, yeast and mice to study expansion, but these models differ substantially from humans. We need now to connect the dots among human genetics, pathway biochemistry and the appropriate model systems to understand the mechanism of expansion as it occurs in human disease.

Mechanisms of trinucleotide repeat instability during human development.

Nature Reviews Genetics 11, 786–799 (2010) In Table 1 in the above article, there was a mistake on the row starting with DM1 (myotonic dystrophy type 1). The 'Repeat number (disease)' column incorrectly stated 50. The author apologizes for the error.

/pdf/erratum-mechanisms-of-trinucleotide-repeat-instability-2txtsadloa.pdf

Erratum: Mechanisms of trinucleotide repeat instability during human development

Apoptosis causes elimination of more than 99% of germ cells from cohort of ovary through follicular atresia. Less than 1% of germ cells, which are culminated in oocytes further undergo apoptosis during last phases of oogenesis and depletes ovarian reserve in most of the mammalian species including human. There are several players that induce apoptosis directly or indirectly in oocytes at various stages of meiotic cell cycle. Premature removal of encircling granulosa cells from immature oocytes, reduced levels of adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate and guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate, increased levels of calcium (Ca(2+)) and oxidants, sustained reduced level of maturation promoting factor, depletion of survival factors, nutrients and cell cycle proteins, reduced meiotic competency, increased levels of proapoptotic as well as apoptotic factors lead to oocyte apoptosis. The BH3-only proteins also act as key regulators of apoptosis in oocyte within the ovary. Both intrinsic (mitochondria-mediated) as well as extrinsic (cell surface death receptor-mediated) pathways are involved in oocyte apoptosis. BID, a BH3-only protein act as a bridge between both apoptotic pathways and its cleavage activates cell death machinery of both the pathways inside the follicular microenvironment. Oocyte apoptosis leads to the depletion of ovarian reserve that directly affects reproductive outcome of various mammals including human. In this review article, we highlight some of the important players and describe the pathways involved during oocyte apoptosis in mammals.

Apoptosis in mammalian oocytes: a review.

Metabolic studies of mammalian embryos started with the development of in vitro culture systems more than 40 years ago. More recently, metabolic studies have begun to shed light on the requirements of growing oocytes/follicles from the earliest stages of folliculogenesis. While growing oocytes preferentially metabolise pyruvate over glucose, the somatic compartment of ovarian follicles is more glycolytic. The metabolic preferences of the oocyte are reflected in the early zygote, which becomes increasingly dependent on glycolytic energy production as development progresses to the blastocyst stage. Furthermore, the intricate metabolic relationship between each oocyte and its somatic surroundings is critical for oocyte growth and developmental competence. Measurements of amino acid turnover in bovine oocytes indicate that glutamine, arginine and leucine are consistently depleted, while alanine is produced, showing similarities with amino acid turnover in preimplantation embryos. Amino acid profiling is a good predictor of embryo quality and might also turn out to be a predictor of oocyte developmental competence. Finally, recent studies have uncovered lipid metabolism in oocytes and early embryos, suggesting that endogenous fatty acids might be used for energy production. Together, metabolic studies have revealed the multiplicity of energetic substrates used by oocytes and early embryos, and suggest that the versatility of the metabolic pathways available for energy production is key for high developmental potential. Metabolic studies of early embryos are now being applied to follicle culture, and the goal of describing the metabolome of the growing oocyte in its follicle is now very attainable.

/pdf/metabolism-throughout-follicle-and-oocyte-development-in-3ziif0hj8i.pdf

Metabolism throughout follicle and oocyte development in mammals

Autophagy is a mechanism that exists in all eukaryotes under a variety of physiological and pathological conditions. In the mammalian ovaries, less than 1% of follicles ovulate, whereas the remaining 99% undergo follicular atresia. Autophagy and apoptosis have been previously found to be involved in the regulation of both primordial follicular development as well as atresia. The relationship between autophagy, follicular development, and atresia have been summarized in this review with the aim to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the role played by autophagy in follicular development and atresia.

/pdf/autophagy-in-ovarian-follicular-development-and-atresia-4huir25ou8.pdf

Autophagy in Ovarian Follicular Development and Atresia.

Meiotic cell cycle in mammalian oocytes is a dynamic process that involves several stop/go channels. The cell cycle arrest in oocyte occurs at various stages such as diplotene, metaphase-I (M-I), metaphase-II (M-II), and so called metaphase-like arrest (M-III). Leutinizing hormone surge induces meiotic resumption from diplotene arrest in follicular microenvironment by overriding several factors responsible for the maintenance of meiotic arrest. The inhibitory factors are synthesized in oocyte or in the associated follicular somatic cells and transferred to the oocyte. The major factors include hypoxanthine, cyclic adenosine 3', 5'-monophosphate, cyclic guanosine 3', 5'-monophosphate, reactive oxygen species, protein kinase A, and protein kinase C. In the presence of active protein kinases, epidermal-like growth factors are produced that activate mitogen-activated protein kinase in cumulus granulosa cells. The maturation promoting factor, cytostatic factors, and spindle assembly checkpoint proteins are also involved in that maintenance of arrest at various stages of meiotic cell cycle in mammalian oocytes. In this review, we briefly summarize the role of these factors in the maintenance of meiotic cell cycle arrest in mammalian oocytes.

K.V. Prem Kumar

Papers

Meiotic cell cycle arrest in mammalian oocytes.