There is an often overlooked substitute for exchange in the marketplace. Organizational units in the form of house-holds and businesses can create, consume and/or use goods and services internally and thus avoid markets. This article offers a unified discussion of why organizations engage in internal as well as external exchange activity, with the objective of encouraging marketing theorists to integrate internal exchange into the discipline. By addressing internal exchange activity, scholars should be able to construct more comprehensive theories of macromarketing, competitive strategy, and perhaps even a general theory of marketing.

A general framework for explaining internal vs. external exchange

Educational planning is a worldwide activity to which both capitalist and socialist nations have devoted considerable effort and resources. In this paper we review international research in educational planning in developed and developing countries since 1960. It should be noted from the outset that research on educational planning was almost entirely the product of developed countries until the 1960s. During that \"development decade\" educational planning expanded to the point of being worldwide and became integrated in the activities of ministries of education. We review literature that, in our view, has contributed significantly to the development and application of important concepts in educational planning. It was not our intention to review the literature on educational planning, but to concentrate on research on planning. This research is primarily macro in scope, treating countries or regions of countries, seldom attending to small units. Hence, the review had to treat mainly macrolevel planning. Educational planning employs some concepts that have been derived from other planning sectors, such as regional communications and health planning. Although each of these has different goals, they employ similar methodologies and share some common conceptual bases that are interchangeable from one planning area to another. For this reason, our review includes some references to other planning sectors, although it is not our purpose to identify conceptual and methodological similarities across planning sectors. Because the literature in educational planning is sizeable, we deal primarily with western models of educational planning. However, we have chosen those works, conferences, and authors that deal with both developed and developing countries.

Karl August Fox

Papers

Economic Analysis for Educational Planning : Resource Allocation in Nonmarket Systems