MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous ∼23 nt RNAs that play important gene-regulatory roles in animals and plants by pairing to the mRNAs of protein-coding genes to direct their posttranscriptional repression. This review outlines the current understanding of miRNA target recognition in animals and discusses the widespread impact of miRNAs on both the expression and evolution of protein-coding genes.

MicroRNAs: Target Recognition and Regulatory Functions

During plant-pathogen interactions, plants have to defend the living transposable elements from pathogens. In response to such elements, plants activate a variety of defense mechanisms to counteract the aggressiveness of biotic stressors. RNA interference (RNAi) is a key biological process in plants to inhibit gene expression both transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally, using three different groups of proteins to resist the virulence of pathogens. However, pathogens trigger an anti-silencing mechanism through the expression of suppressors to block host RNAi. The disruption of the silencing mechanism is a virulence strategy of pathogens to promote infection in the invaded hosts. In this review, we summarize the RNA silencing pathway, anti-silencing suppressors, and counter-defenses of plants to viral, fungal, and bacterial pathogens.

https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/8/1/38/pdf/1

RNA Interference: A Natural Immune System of Plants to Counteract Biotic Stressors.

Many reference genes are used by different laboratories for gene expression analyses to indicate the relative amount of input RNA/DNA in the experiment. These reference genes are supposed to show least variation among the treatments and with the control sets in a given experiment. However, expression of reference genes varies significantly from one set of experiment to the other. Thus, selection of reference genes depends on the experimental conditions. Sometimes the average expression of two or three reference genes is taken as standard. This review consolidated the details of about 120 genes attempted for normalization during comparative expression analysis in 16 different plants. Plant species included in this review are Arabidopsis thaliana, cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana and N. tabacum), soybean (Glycine max), rice (Oryza sativa), blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), wheat (Triticum aestivum), potato (Solanum tuberosum), sugar cane (Saccharum sp.), carrot (Daucus carota), coffee (Coffea arabica), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa) and grape (Vitis vinifera). The list includes model and cultivated crop plants from both monocot and dicot classes. We have categorized plant-wise the reference genes that have been used for expression analyses in any or all of the four different conditions such as biotic stress, abiotic stress, developmental stages and various organs and tissues, reported till date. This review serves as a guide during the reference gene hunt for gene expression analysis studies.

Plant reference genes for development and stress response studies

We provide advances in DCL and RDR gene diversity in Solanaceae. We also shed light on DCL and RDR gene expression in response to cold stress. DICER-like (DCL) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RDR) genes form the core components to trigger small non-coding RNA (ncRNA) production. In spite of this, little is known about the two gene families in non-model plant species. As their genome sequences are now available, the cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum) and its cold-tolerant wild relative Solanum commersonii offer a valuable opportunity to advance our understanding of the above genes. To determine the extent of diversification and evolution of DCLs and RDRs in these species, we performed a comparative analysis. Seven DCLs were identified in the two species, whereas seven and six RDR genes were found in S. tuberosum and S. commersonii, respectively. Based on phylogenetic analysis with DCLs and RDRs from several species, we provide evidence for an increase in their number in both potato species. We also disclosed that tandem duplications played a major role in the evolution of these gene families in Solanaceae. DCL and RDR expression was investigated in different tissues and under cold and virus stresses, with divergent profiles of the tandem duplicated genes being found in different tissues. DCL paralogs showed a contrasting expression in S. tuberosum and S. commersonii following cold stress and virus infection. By contrast, no change in RDR transcript activity was detected following both stresses. Overall, this study provides the first comparative genomic analysis of the core components of the RNAi machinery in Solanaceae and offers a scaffold for future functional analysis of these gene families.

Dicer-like and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene family identification and annotation in the cultivated Solanum tuberosum and its wild relative S. commersonii

RNA silencing is a conserved mechanism in eukaryotic organisms to regulate gene expression. Argonaute (AGO), Dicer-like (DCL) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RDR) proteins are critical components of RNA silencing, but how these gene families' functions in sugarcane were largely unknown. Most stress-resistance genes in modern sugarcane cultivars (Saccharum spp.) were originated from wild species of Saccharum, for example S. spontaneum. Here, we used genome-wide analysis and a phylogenetic approach to identify four DCL, 21 AGO and 11 RDR genes in the S. spontaneum genome (termed SsDCL, SsAGO and SsRDR, respectively). Several genes, particularly some of the SsAGOs, appeared to have undergone tandem or segmental duplications events. RNA-sequencing data revealed that four SsAGO genes (SsAGO18c, SsAGO18b, SsAGO10e and SsAGO6b) and three SsRDR genes (SsRDR2b, SsRDR2d and SsRDR3) tended to have preferential expression in stem tissue, while SsRDR5 was preferentially expressed in leaves. qRT-PCR analysis showed that SsAGO10c, SsDCL2 and SsRDR6b expressions were strongly upregulated, whereas that of SsAGO18b, SsRDR1a, SsRDR2b/2d and SsRDR5 was significantly depressed in S. spontaneum plants exposed to PEG-induced dehydration stress or infected with Xanthomonas albilineans, causal agent of leaf scald disease of sugarcane, suggesting that these genes play important roles in responses of S. spontaneum to biotic and abiotic stresses.

/pdf/genome-wide-identification-and-characterization-of-dcl-ago-2yg3a9m7xs.pdf

Genome-wide identification and characterization of DCL, AGO and RDR gene families in Saccharum spontaneum.

Posttranscriptional control of gene expression can be achieved through RNA interference when the activities of Dicer-like (DCL), argonaute (AGO) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RDR) proteins are significant. In this study, we analysed the expression of seven AGO, five DCL and eight RDR genes in cucumber under cold, heat, hormone, salinity and dehydration treatments using quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (qRT-PCR). All CsAGO, CsDCL and CsRDR genes were differentially expressed under abiotic stress treatment. In response to abiotic stress treatment, most genes were expressed at higher levels in flowers or stems than in other organs, whereas some CsAGOs (CsAGO1c, CsAGO6 and CsAGO7) and CsRDRs (CsRDR1d and CsRDR2) were highly expressed in roots during dehydration treatment. The expression patterns indicate that most CsDCLs, CsAGOs and CsRDRs respond to abiotic stress, and stems or flowers are the most sensitive organs, followed by roots. This is the first report of expression analysis of all CsDCL, CsAGO and CsRDR family genes in cucumber under abiotic stress, which provides basic information and insights into the putative roles of these genes in abiotic stress. The results of this study should serve as a basis for further functional characterization of these gene families in cucumber and related Cucurbitaceae species.

Expression analysis of argonaute, Dicer-like, and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase genes in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) in response to abiotic stress

A mild organocatalyzed living radical polymerization method was studied for high molecular weight polymers (HMWPs), yielding low-dispersity linear and star polymers (Đ = Mw /Mn = 1.03-1.28) up to Mn = 3.9 × 105 and monomer conversion = 80%, where Mn and Mw are the number- and weight-average molecular weights, respectively. Even at high degrees of polymerization (DPs > 2000), this technique still features excellent control over molecular weights and Đ values, indicating the living character. The macroinitiators prepared at DP = 2000 were subsequently used for block polymerizations at high DPs (> 2000) with functional methacrylates, yielding linear A-B diblock, linear B-A-B triblock, and 3-arm star A-B diblock copolymers, suggesting the excellent block efficiency of macroinitiators synthesized at a high DP value ( = 2000). This mild organocatalyzed living radical polymerization technique can enhance the livingness of propagation radicals and kinetic chain length at high monomer conversions for monomers with moderate propagation rate coefficients (kp s), reduce the persistent radical effect as much as possible, and hence enable HMWPs without the presence of metal catalyst, exogenous initiator, or harsh equipment. The obtained amphiphilic block copolymers present unique microphase separation behavior, and hold great potential in advanced materials applications, e.g., thermosensitive nanocarriers. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Synthesis of High Molecular Weight Polymers by Organocatalyzed Living Radical Polymerization and Self-assembly.

Back Cover: In article 2300005, Keling Hu, Yongjun Zhang, and co-workers demonstrate an organocatalyzed living radical polymerization method for high molecular weight polymers (HMWPs), yielding well-defined HMWPs in a metal-free and sulfur-free manner. This technique is rather mild and crucial for eliminating the persistent radical effect and dramatically improving livingness of propagation radicals, enabling HMWPs without the need of exogenous initiator or harsh equipment. 

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/marc.202370022

Synthesis of High Molecular Weight Polymers by Organocatalyzed Living Radical Polymerization and Self‐Assembly Behavior

Spontaneous oxidative polymerization of dopamine (DA) has been widely exploited as a facile and versatile method for surface modification. However, the reaction is very slow and only occurs in alkaline solutions, which severely limit its applications. Herein we report that the reaction can be dramatically accelerated by using Fe2+ as catalyst. While it takes hours and days using conventional method, the Fe2+ -catalyzed reaction finishes almost immediately at pH 7.0. In addition, under the catalysis of Fe2+ , the reaction can occur at a pH down to 4.0. The fast Fe2+ -catalyzed polymerization of DA leads to fast deposition of polydopamine (PDA) coating, thus allowing fast surface modification and textile dyeing. The Fe2+ -catalyzed reaction also allows spatial control over the PDA deposition. The fast, simple and mild surface modification method developed here will find applications in numerous fields. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Keling Hu

Papers

Expression analysis of argonaute, Dicer-like, and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase genes in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) in response to abiotic stress

Synthesis of High Molecular Weight Polymers by Organocatalyzed Living Radical Polymerization and Self-assembly.

Synthesis of High Molecular Weight Polymers by Organocatalyzed Living Radical Polymerization and Self‐Assembly Behavior

Bioinspired, Ultra-fast Polymerization of Dopamine Under Mild Conditions.