Free food or earned food? A review and fuzzy model of contrafreeloading

Essential hypertension is a chronic disorder having many potential physical and behavioral sequelae This article evaluates the impact of hypertension on neuropsychological test performance First, cross-sectional and longitudinal studies that examine the neuropsychological correlates of hypertension are reviewed In general, hypertensives are found to perform more poorly than normotensives, particularly on tests of memory, attention, and abstract reasoning, and less consistently on tests of perception, constructional ability, mental flexibility, and psychomotor speed Next, the influence of variables that may moderate relationships between hypertension and neuropsychological performance--such as age, education, and medication usage--are examined Finally, potential mechanisms, both physiological and psychological, underlying associations between hypertension and neuropsychological performance are discussed

Neuropsychological correlates of hypertension: review and methodologic considerations.

Animals will perform an operant response to obtain food when abundant free food is available. These data have implications for current learning theories, especially in terms of the motivational variables associated with such behavior. The present paper reviews the literature and provides an analysis that suggests that responding for food in the presence of free food is importantly controlled by stimulus change attendant upon response-dependent food presentation. This apparent stimulus-reinforcer effect on behavior is compared to that observed in other areas of animal learning research that include preference between schedules of response-dependent and response-independent reinforcement, preference between schedules of signaled and unsignaled reinforcement, autoshaping and automaintenance, and self-reinforcement in animals.

/pdf/the-free-food-contrafreeloading-phenomenon-a-review-and-4j2fg4tm2u.pdf

The free food (contrafreeloading) phenomenon: A review and analysis

Vocal and manual reaction time estimates of interhemispheric transmission time.

Nine-hundred-and-twenty-two hypertensive patients were included in a substudy to the Hypertension Optimal Treatment study, which aimed to investigate the impact on quality of life of lowering the pressure and of intensified therapy. Seven-hundred-and-eighty-one patients completed both baseline and follow-up questionnaires (intention-to-treat population), while 610 patients were included in a per protocol analysis. Patients were randomized to three diastolic BP levels (DBPs), i.e. < or =90 mmHg, < or =85 mmHg and < or =80 mmHg. Two self-administered validated questionnaires, the Psychological General Well-Being index and the Subjective Symptoms Assessment Profile (SSA-P) were completed at baseline and after 6 months. The lower the DBP achieved, the greater the improvement in well-being (p < 0.05). The increase in well-being from baseline to 6 months was significant in target groups < or =80 mmHg (p < 0.01) and < or =85 mmHg (p < 0.05). The SSA-P domains, cardiac symptoms and dizziness improved in all groups but the sex life score deteriorated in the < or =80 and < or =85 mmHg groups in male patients. In all target groups, headaches were reduced (p < 0.001), while swollen ankles (p < 0.001) and dry cough in the < or =80 mmHg group (p < 0.001) increased. Although more intensive antihypertensive therapy is associated with a slight increase in subjective symptoms, it is nonetheless still associated with improvements in patients' well-being.

Does lowering the blood pressure improve the mood? Quality-of-life results from the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) Study

Eight male essential hypertensives underwent 9 weekly 2-hr biofeedback training sessions in which feedback (i.e., lights and tones) was contingent upon decreases in systolic pressure. Three weekly control sessions (with no feedback) preceded feedback training. Outside the laboratory, patients recorded blood pressure 5 times per day both at home and at work. Patients continued monitoring their blood pressure for up to 4 months after termination of feedback training. Both prior to and following the 9 weeks of biofeedback training, patients were given the Category Test (a subtest of the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery). Feedback training resulted in significant reductions in blood pressure both within and outside of the laboratory. The reduction in non-laboratory pressure readings persisted for up to 4 months after feedback training was terminated. A significant positive correlation was found between systolic pressure and number of errors on the Category Test given prior to biofeedback training, and between magnitude of decrease in systolic pressure recorded during biofeedback training and improvement in Category Test performance measured subsequent to training. After completion of the study, patients were rated (on the basis of structured interview data obtained following weekly feedback sessions) as to overall level of stress (i.e., general stressfulness of life style, accidents, illnesses, emotional problems, etc.). Patients rated high in overall stress had significantly higher blood pressure readings during the control period. However, magnitude of decrease in blood pressure recorded during feedback training was essentially the same regardless of rated stress level.

Relationship Between Essential Hypertension and Cognitive Functioning II: Effects of Biofeedback Training Generalize to Non‐Laboratory Environment

Electromyographic (EMG) feedback was used to train a patient to inhibit spastic muscles voluntarily. The EMG activity was recorded with surface electrodes placed over the belly of the medial gastrocnemius muscle and displayed on a meter. The patient trained himself at home for thirty minutes daily for two months. Following training, improved muscle control could be seen even without the use of the EMG feedback device.

/pdf/use-of-electromyographic-feedback-to-increase-inhibitory-1iy04i280m.pdf

Use of electromyographic feedback to increase inhibitory control of spastic muscles

Several recent studies have indicated that the degree and direction of bilateral skin conductance (BSC) asymmetry and the direction of conjugate lateral eye movements (CLEMs) both index hemispheric functioning. Evidence also suggests that BSC asymmetry decreases and CLEMs become more unidirectional as level of arousal increases. Thirty-two normal adults received an habituation series of five-second tones followed by 40 questions. All stimuli were tape recorded. The questions (Schwartz, Davidson, and Maer, 1975) were grouped in four series: 10 verbal-emotional, 10 verbalnonemotional, 10 spatial-emotional, and 10 spatial-nonemotional. The order in which the four series were presented was counterbalanced across subjects. Prior to each question, subjects fixated the face of a mannequin. Sixteen subjects (high arousal) had five seconds to contemplate their answer; the remaining 16 (low arousal) had 10 seconds. Instructions for the high arousal group specified that intelligence and problem-solving ability was being tested, and that speed and accuracy were very important. Those for the low arousal group indicated casually that subjects were to ponder a series of questions. BSC levels, SC response amplitudes, and CLEMs were measured during a five-second interval following each tone or question. BSC levels were greater under the High Arousal condition. While approximately two-thirds of the subjects showed BSC asymmetry (roughly evenly divided between those with larger left and right hand responses), neither the degree nor direction of the asymmetries changed as a function of question type. While CLEM direction was more sensitive to question type under low arousal, (i.e., verbal questions resulted in predominantly right-going CLEMs and spatial questions resulted in predominantly left-going CLEMs) they tended to be stereotyped (i.e., unidirectional) under high arousal. Finally, no relationship was observed between CLEM direction and BSC asymmetry under either high or low arousal condition.

Effects of level of arousal and type of task on bilateral skin conductance asymmetry and conjugate lateral eye movements.

The role of reinforcement and motivation in biofeedback performance

Interhemispheric transmission times (IHTTs) were calculated for 33 right-handed subjects. Verbal and manual response times (RTs) were recorded to visual stimuli exposed in either the left or right visual fields (LF, RF) for 50 msec. Each subject received 15 stimuli (dots) in the LF (1.5 degrees to the left of fixation), 15 stimuli in the RF, and 15 blank trials in both the verbal and manual response condition. IHTTs were calculated for each subject by subtracting the mean RF RT (i.e., uncrossed path) from the mean LF RT (i.e., crossed path). Results indicated a nonsignificant IHTT obtained under the manual response condition of 5 msec and a highly significant IHTT obtained under the verbal response condition of 20 msec. While no significant correlation was found between IHTTs obtained under both response conditions, high correlations were found between component RT measures (i.e., manual RF RT, manual LF RT, verbal RF RT, and verbal LF RT). Thus, IHTT is independent of simple RT.

Kenneth M. Kleinman

Papers

Relationship Between Essential Hypertension and Cognitive Functioning II: Effects of Biofeedback Training Generalize to Non‐Laboratory Environment

Use of electromyographic feedback to increase inhibitory control of spastic muscles

Effects of level of arousal and type of task on bilateral skin conductance asymmetry and conjugate lateral eye movements.

The role of reinforcement and motivation in biofeedback performance

A Comparison of Interhemispheric Transmission Times as Measured by Verbal and Manual Reaction Time