The handbook of pragmatics , The handbook of pragmatics , کتابخانه دیجیتال جندی شاپور اهواز

Handbook of Pragmatics

Lexicalization, a process of language change, has been conceptualized in a variety of ways. Broadly defined as the adoption of concepts into the lexicon, it has been viewed by syntacticians as the reverse process of grammaticalization, by morphologists as a routine process of word-formation, and by semanticists as the development of concrete meanings. In this up-to-date survey, Laurel Brinton and Elizabeth Traugott examine the various conceptualizations of lexicalization that have been presented in the literature. In light of contemporary work on grammaticalization, they then propose a new, unified model of lexicalization and grammaticalization. Their approach is illustrated with a variety of case studies from the history of English, including present participles, multi-word verbs, adverbs, and discourse markers, as well as some examples from other Indo-European languages. The first review of the various approaches to lexicalization, this book will be invaluable to students and scholars of historical linguistics and language change.

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Lexicalization and Language Change

Antibiotics will soon no longer be able to cure common illnesses such as strep throat, sinusitis and middle ear infections as they have done for the last 60 years. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are increasing at a much faster rate than new antibiotics to treat them are being developed. The prescription of antibiotics for viral illnesses is a key cause of increasing bacterial resistance. Despite this fact, many children continue to receive antibiotics unnecessarily for the treatment of viral upper respiratory tract infections. Why do American physicians continue to prescribe inappropriately given the high social stakes of this action? The answer appears to lie in the fundamentally social nature of medical practice: physicians do not prescribe as the result of a clinical algorithm but prescribe in the context of a conversation with a parent and a child. Thus, physicians have a classic social dilemma which pits individual parents and children against a greater social good. This book examines parent-physician conversations in detail, showing how parents put pressure on doctors in largely covert ways, for instance in specific communication practices for explaining why they have brought their child to the doctor or answering a history-taking question. This book also shows how physicians yield to this seemingly subtle pressure evidencing that apparently small differences in wording have important consequences for diagnosis and treatment recommendations. Following parents use of these interactional practices, physicians are more likely to make concessions, alter their diagnosis or alter their treatment recommendation. This book also shows how small changes in the way physicians present their findings and recommendations can decrease parent pressure for antibiotics. This book carefully documents the important and observable link between micro social interaction and macro public health domains.

Prescribing under Pressure: Parent-Physician Conversations and Antibiotics

This book investigates how speakers of English, Polish and Russian deal with offensive situations. It reveals culture-specific perceptions of what counts as an apology and what constitutes politeness. It offers a critical discussion of Brown and Levinson's theory and provides counterevidence to the correlation between indirectness and politeness underlying their theory. Their theory is applied to two languages that rely less heavily on indirectness in conveying politeness than does English, and to a speech act that does not become more polite through indirectness. An analysis of the face considerations involved in apologising shows that in contrast to disarming apologies, remedial apologies are mainly directed towards positive face needs, which are crucial for the restoration of social equilibrium and maintenance of relationships. The data show that while English apologies are characterised by a relatively strong focus on both interlocutors’ negative face, Polish apologies display a particular concern for positive face. For Russian speakers, in contrast, apologies seem to involve a lower degree of face threat than they do in the other two languages.

On Apologising in Negative and Positive Politeness Cultures

This book investigates the ways that advanced speakers of Korean as a second language perceive, use and learn the complexities of the Korean honorifics system. Despite their advanced proficiency in Korean, the study shows that the honorifics use of these speakers diverges in crucial ways from native speaker norms. It is argued that, rather than reflecting the language competence of these speakers as such, this usage is linked to questions of the identity of “language learners” and “foreigners” in Korean society. In addition, it shows the influence of conflicting ideologies regarding the “meaning” of “politeness”. This argument is backed up by rich data collected through mixed methods (discourse completion tests, role-plays, natural interactions, introspective interviews), allowing for a detailed picture of how the honorifics use of second language speakers emerges in context. The book concludes by discussing the implications of the study for politeness research, interlanguage pragmatics and language pedagogy.

Korean honorifics and politeness in second language learning

The purpose of Diachronic Pragmatics is to exemplify historical pragmatics in its twofold sense of constituting both a subject matter and a methodology. This book demonstrates how diachronic pragmatics, with its complementary diachronic function-to-form mapping and diachronic form-to-function mapping, can be used to trace pragmatic developments within the English language. Through a set of case studies it explores the evolution of such speech acts as promises, curses, blessings, and greetings and such speech events as flyting and sounding. Collectively these “illocutionary biographies” manifest the workings of several important pragmatic processes and trends: increased epistemicity, subjectification, and discursization (a special kind of pragmaticalization). It also establishes the centrality of cultural traditions in diachronic reconstruction, examining various de-institutionalizations of extra-linguistic context and their affect on speech act performance. Taken together, the case studies presented in Diachronic Pragmatics highlight the complex interactions of formal, semantic, and pragmatic processes over time. Illustrating the possibilities of historical pragmatic pursuit, this book stands as an invitation to further research in a new and important discipline.

Diachronic pragmatics : seven case studies in English illocutionary development

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND SAMPLE TEXTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABBREVIATIONS PREFACE 1. Studying the History of English OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES WHY STUDY THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH? A DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE THE COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE LINGUISTIC CHANGE IN ENGLISH THE NATURE OF LINGUISTIC CHANGE THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE ATTITUDES TOWARDS LINGUISTIC CHANGE RESOURCES FOR STUDYING THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING FURTHER VIEWING 2. The Sounds and Writing of English OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES THE SOUND OF ENGLISH THE WRITING OF ENGLISH RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING FURTHER VIEWING 3. Causes and Mechanisms of Language Change OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES CAUSES OF CHANGE MECHANISMS OF PHONOLOGICAL CHANGE MECHANISMS OF MORPHOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC CHANGE MECHANISMS OF SEMANTIC CHANGE RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING FURTHER VIEWING 4. The Indo-European Language Family and Proto-Indo-European OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES LANGUAGE FAMILIES THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY PROTO-LANGUAGE RECONSTRUCTION PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN NOSTRATIC THEORY RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING FURTHER VIEWING 5. Germanic and teh Development of Old English OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES PROTO-GERMANIC GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL CHANGES FROM PIE TO GERMANIC PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES FROM PIE TO GERMANIC A BRIEF HISTORY OF ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND THE RECORDS OF ANGLO-SAXONS RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING 6. The Words and Sounds of Old English OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES THE WORD STOCK OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS THE ORTHOGRAPHIC SYSTEM OF OLD ENGLISH THE PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM OF OLD ENGLISH STRESS A CLOSER LOOK AT THE LANGUAGE OF AN ENGLISH TEXT RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING 7. The Grammar of Old English OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES THE NOMINAL SYSTEM THE VERBAL SYSTEM SYNTAX A CLOSER LOOK AT THE LANGUAGE OF AN OLD ENGLISH TEXT RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING FURTHER VIEWING 8. The Rise of Middle English: Words and Sounds OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES FRENCH AND ENGLISH IN MEDIEVAL ENGLAND THE WORD STOCK OF MIDDLE ENGLISH THE WRITTEN RECORDS OF MIDDLE ENGLISH ORTHOGRPAHIC CHANGES CONSONANT CHANGES VOWEL CHANGES A CLOSER LOOK AT THE LANGUAGE OF A MIDDLE ENGLISH TEXT RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING 9. The Grammar of Middle English and Rise of a Written Standard OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES THE EFFECTS OF VOWEL REDUCTION GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN MIDDLE ENGLISH A CLOSER LOOK AT THE LANGUAGE OF A MIDDLE ENGLISH TEXT CHANGE FROM SYNTHETIC TO ANALYTIC MIDDLE ENGLISH AS A CREOLE? THE RISE OF A STANDARD DIALECT A CLOSER LOOK AT THE LANGUAGE OF A MIDDLE ENGLISH TEXT RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING 10. The Words, Sounds, and Inflections of Early Modern English OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES EARLY MODERN ENGLISH VOCABULARY THE GREAT VOWEL SHIFT CHANGES IN THE SHORT VOWELS OF DIPTHONGS A CLOSER LOOK AT THE LANGUAGE OF AN EARLY MODERN ENGLISH TEXT CHANGES IN CONSONANTS RENAISSANCE RESPELLINGS CHANGES IN NOMINAL INFLECTED FORMS CASE USAGE CHANGES IN VERBAL INFLECTED FORMS A CLOSER LOOK AT THE LANGUAGE OF AN EARLY MODERN ENGLISH TEXT RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING 11. Early Modern English Verbal Constructions and Eighteenth-Century Prescriptivism OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES EARLY MODERN ENGLISH SYNTAX THE RISE OF PRESCRIPTIVISM AIMS OF THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY GRAMMARIANS METHODS OF THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY GRAMMARIANS THE QUESTION OF USAGE DICTIONARIES RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING FURTHER VIEWING 12. Modern English OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL CHANGES SINCE EARLY MODERN ENGLISH CHANGES IN PROGRESS THE EFFECT OF THE NEW MEDIA ON ENGLISH RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING 13. Varieties of English OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL VARIETIES IMPORTANT REGIONAL VARIETIES RECOMMENDED WEB LINKS FURTHER READING FURTHER VIEWING APPENDIX A: QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE APPENDIX B: TIMELINE OF HISTORICAL, LITERARY, AND LINGUISTIC EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH EXERCISE KEY GLOSSARY OF LINGUISTIC TERMS REFERENCES INDEX

The English Language: A Linguistic History

Written Reliquaries: The resonance of orality in medieval English texts establishes the linguistic component of orality and oral tradition. The relics it examines are traces of spoken performance, artifacts of linguistic and cultural processes. Seven case studies animate verbal acts of making promises, quoting proverbs, pronouncing curses, speaking gibberish, praying Pater Nosters, invoking saints, and keeping silence. The study of their resonance is enabled by a methodological conjunction of historical pragmatics and oral theory. Insights from oral theory enlighten spoken traditions which in turn may be understood in the larger historical-pragmatic context of linguistic performance. The inquiry ranges across broad as well as narrow planes of reference to trace a complex set of cultural and linguistic interactions. In this way it reconstructs relevant discursive contexts, giving detailed accounts of underlying assumptions, traditions, and conventions. Doing so, the book demonstrates that an integrated methodology not only allows access to oral discourse in both Old English and Middle English but also provides insight into the fluid medieval interchange of literacy and orality.

Written Reliquaries: The Resonance of Orality in Medieval English Texts

Contents: The Development of Future Constructions in English is a scholarly monograph intended for linguists, English language historians, and medievalists interested in the history of future constructions in English or in the behavior of will and shall.

The development of future constructions in English : the pragmatics modal and temporal will and shall in Middle English

One of the central problems in the Middle Ages, according to Brian Stock, “is the relation of orality to a world making ever-increasing use of texts” in both its social interactions and its ontological explorations (1990:35). Because a contemporary self-consciousness can be reconstructed, Stock observes, “[t]he coming of literacy heralds a new style of reflection. Individuals are aware of what is taking place, and this awareness influences the way they think about communication. . .” (7). The subject of this essay is precisely some of the subjective reactions that the oral-literate interchange provokes in the mind of Geoffrey Chaucer. Working within both literate and oral poetic traditions, the English aureatelaureate also works between them, negotiating their interchange through his acute awareness of their strained fusion In arguing that an anxious ambivalence about writing operates as dynamic subtext in Beowulf, Michael Near (1993) suggests that tensions between orality and literacy lie at the heart of the Anglo-Saxon poem. Reading Middle English literature, produced in a time of steadily increasing literacy and in an age wherein written poetry supplants oral poetry, we discover tensions in the oral-literate continuum that are the inverse of those faced by the author and audience of Beowulf. In the fourteenth century, these latter-day tensions play themselves out in Chaucer’s dream vision, the House of Fame.

Leslie K. Arnovick

Papers

Diachronic pragmatics : seven case studies in English illocutionary development

The English Language: A Linguistic History

Written Reliquaries: The Resonance of Orality in Medieval English Texts

The development of future constructions in English : the pragmatics modal and temporal will and shall in Middle English

"In Forme of Speche" is Anxiety: Orality in Chaucer's House of Fame