Globalisation leads to increases in all kinds of cross-border flows, including movements of people. In recent years international migrationhas grown in volume, and is now an important factor of social transformation in all regions of the world. States classify migrants into certain categories, and seek to encourage certain types of mobility while restricting others. However,control measures are often ineffective if they are not based on understanding of the economic, social and cultural dynamics of migration. The article reviews causes and patterns of migration, and discusses some key issues: migration anddevelopment, international cooperation, settle-ment and ethnic diversity, and migration as a challenge to the nation-state. It is argued that most national governments have taken a short-term and reactive approach to migration. Effortsat international regulation are also relatively under-developed. There is a need for long-term cooperative strategies to achieve agreed goals such as: ensuring orderly migration and preventing exploitation by agents and recruiters;safeguarding the human rights of migrants; making migration an instrument of sustainable development; avoiding conflicts with populations of migrant-receiving areas, and maximising positive aspects of social and culturalchange.

International migration at the beginning of the twenty-first century: global trends and issues

This article seeks to provide an overview of some of the main trends and issues which are likely to shape international population mobility in the period ahead. (excerpt)

International migration at the beginning of the twenty-first century: global trends and issues.

This article analyzes the impact of migrant female domestic workers on the socioeconomic and political context in Singapore. Although Singapore state policy opposes long-term immigration there is a labor shortage which permits a transient work force of low-skilled foreign workers. In the late 1990s Singapore had over 100000 foreign maids of whom 75% were from the Philippines 20% were from Indonesia and the rest were from Sri Lanka. Legislation ensures their short-term migrant status restricts their numbers and governs their employment. Migrant workers are also regulated through a stringent allocation system based on household income of employers and the need for caregivers for children. Work permits are conditioned on non-marriage to citizens of Singapore or pregnancy. Terms and conditions of migrant employment are not specified which permits long hours of work and potential for inhumane treatment. Migrant women fulfill jobs not desired by natives and accept these jobs at lower wages. There is disagreement about the motivation for the maid levy and its need fairness and effectiveness in reducing demand for foreign maids. Most public discussion focuses on social values and morality of foreign maids. Politically tensions arise over the legality of migration which results from tourist worker migration to Singapore and circumvents Filipino labor controls. Most of the adjustment cases that come to the attention of OWWA are tourist workers. Policies should be gender sensitive.

Migrant female domestic workers: debating the economic, social and political impacts in Singapore.

In this article we attempt to place the issue of international marriage in an institutionalized profit-oriented social context which is described as "the commodification process". The starting point included measuring the scale of the international marriage market in Taiwan. Socio-demographic change in Taiwan and Viet Nam has created a market for profit-pursuing marriage agents. Agents scattered in different social spheres have gradually linked to form a profitable industry. Two different industrial organization types have emerged in the matchmaking process to meet different market constraints. As the cross-border marriage market matures more and more people enter the market and competitive price good quality and delivery on time become the necessary conditions for success. In this competitive process female migrant partners become increasingly commodified to conform to the new situation. They are required to accept reduced prices to be "good enough" to marry and to be married when there is demand. The social networks of individuals are gradually transformed by agents in pursuit of profit. (authors)

The commodification of international marriages: Cross-border marriage business in Taiwan and Vietnam

This paper argues that most conceptualizations of citizenship limit the purview of the discourse to static categories. ‘Citizenship’ is commonly seen as an ideal type, presuming a largely legal relationship between an inidividual and a single nationstate - more precisely only one type of nation-state, the advanced capitalist postwar model. Alternatively, we suggest a re-conceptualization of citizenship as a negotiated relationship, one which is subject therefore to change, and acted upon collectively within social, political and economic relations of conflict. This dynamic process of negotiation takes place within a context which is shaped by gendered, racial and class structures and ideologies; it also involves international hierarchies among states. Citizenship is therefore negotiated on global as well as national levels. This conceptualization is demonstrated by way of identifying one particular set of experiences of negotiated citizenship, involving foreign domestic workers in Canada. As non-citizens originating from Third World conditions, this is a case involving women of colour workers, highly prone to abusive conditions, and under the direction of employers who are more affluent First World citizens and predominantly white women. Original survey data based on interviews with Caribbean and Filipino domestic workers in Canada are used to demonstrate the varied, creative and effective strategies of two distinctive groups of non-citizens as they attempt to negotiate citizenship rights in restrictive national and international conditions.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1080%2F014177897339687.pdf

Negotiating Citizenship: The Case of Foreign Domestic Workers in Canada:

"The feminization of women in international labor migration has been most pronounced in the case of Asia, with women moving in their own right as economic migrants and faced with regulatory and social constraints, gender discrimination and exploitation in countries of origin and destination. Asian countries, both sending and receiving, have been experimenting with gender-sensitive migration policies and programs. This paper describes the characteristics of Asian female labor migration, examines policy dimensions and suggests action to bridge the gaps between policy dimensions and implementation."

International labor migration of Asian women: distinctive characteristics and policy concerns.

Exploring the unique experience of migration transition in Malaysia this paper identifies the turning points in relation to the level and nature of economic and labor market developments in Malaysia. Examining the development dynamics that mark the passage from exporting labor to depending on foreign labor the paper concludes that such dynamics are influenced not only by economic but also sociocultural demographic and policy factors. Several lessons from the Malaysian experience are drawn at the end to be utilized by other countries that still have to reach the turning points of the migration transition. (EXCERPT)

The migration transition in Malaysia.

The comprehensive overview of Asian-Pacific migration summarizes early population movements during the colonial period and describes the major types of contemporary Asian population movements: (1) environmental refugees, (2) political refugees, (3) internal population movements, (4) contract labor migration, (5) migration of permanent settlers, (6) business related movements and tourism. Projections of net international migration are given. Population growth, employment absorption and emigration pressures are likely to contribute to a large mobility potential for Asia, with significant implications for Australia.

Lin Lean Lim

Papers

International labor migration of Asian women: distinctive characteristics and policy concerns.

The migration transition in Malaysia.

The movement of people in Asia: internal, intra-regional and international migration.