Objective: The principal goal of this study was to investigate the relationships between maternal contributions (e.g., involvement, self-efficacy, linguistic input) and receptive and expressive (oral and sign) language skills in young children with cochlear implants. Design: Relationships between maternal contributions and children's language skills were investigated by using correlation and regression analyses. Thirty-two mothers (mean age = 36.0 yr) and their children (mean age = 4.8 yr) were videotaped during free play and storybook interactions. Mothers' and children's quantitative (MLU, number of word-types) and mothers' qualitative (facilitative language techniques) linguistic input were analyzed. Mothers completed a measurement tool specifically designed to quantify their sense of involvement and self-efficacy (Scale of Parental Involvement and Self-Efficacy). The Reynell Developmental Language Scales and data from videotaped transcription analyses were used to evaluate children's oral and sign language skills. Results: Maternal involvement and self-efficacy relating to children's speech-language development were positively related to mothers' quantitative and qualitative linguistic input. After controlling for child's age, mothers' MLU and two facilitative language techniques (recast and open-ended question) were positively related to children's language skills. Conclusions: The performance of young implant users may vary in part because of their mothers' sense of involvement and self-efficacy, as well as the ways in which mothers interact with their children. Given this information, it would be fruitful for professionals working with these families to incorporate goals that enhance caregivers' involvement, self-efficacy, and linguistic input to better support language development in young children after cochlear implantation.

Maternal contributions: supporting language development in young children with cochlear implants.

Effects of instructing caregivers to implement teaching strategies within daily routines were investigated using a multiple baseline design across caregiver strategies and participants. Four toddlers with developmental delays participated in intervention conducted by their primary caregiver within the family's preferred play routines. To assess generalization, caregiver teaching strategy use was observed during other caregiving and outdoor play routines. Caregiver strategy use increased subsequent to instruction within indoor play routines. Generalization to other routines, however, was limited in three of the four dyads. All four children demonstrated gains in communication objectives and test scores across multiple developmental domains improved. This study demonstrates the viability of teaching caregivers to embed effective teaching strategies within daily routines to improve the communication skills of toddlers.

Effects of Embedding Caregiver-Implemented Teaching Strategies in Daily Routines on Children's Communication Outcomes:

Very low birthweight (VLBW) is often considered to be a risk factor for speech and language disorders, yet data are equivocal. The present study compared speech and language comprehension and production between 249 very-low-birthweight (VLBW: less than 1.5 kg) and 363 normal-birthweight 8-year-olds, randomly sampled in a geographic area. Mean performance for the entire group of VLBW children and for the group when 24 VLBW children with major neurologic abnormalities were excluded, was significantly lower than for controls on the majority of speech and language measures. Further analyses addressed the clinical significance of these statistically significant differences. Test scores were converted to standard scores and grouped according to standard deviation intervals, thus portraying each child's performance in terms of the magnitude of discrepancy from each test's mean. When the 24 children with major neurological abnormalities were excluded, no significant differences between the VLBW and control children were observed. Using discrepancy between WISC-R performance IQ and language to define specific language impairment (SLI), a higher percentage of control than VLBW children were identified as having SLI. Neonatal risk factors did not differentiate between VLBW children with or without SLI. A higher proportion of VLBW than control children did present subnormal language associated with IQ less than 85, hearing deficits, and/or major neurological impairments. Thus, SLI is not more common among VLBW than control children. Language deficits accompanied by more general developmental problems, however, are more frequent.

Very-low-birthweight children and speech and language development.

The primary and generalized effects of Enhanced Milieu Teaching were examined with six preschool children with significant language delays. In a multiple baseline design across children, trainers implemented the naturalistic language intervention during play-based interaction sessions in the children's preschool classrooms. Children systematically increased their use of targeted language skills during the intervention sessions, and these changes were maintained when the treatment was discontinued. Generalized changes in children's communication resulting from the intervention were examined with untrained teachers, peers, and parents. Some generalization to untrained partners was observed for all children. Correlational analyses indicated that greater numbers of child utterances and greater diversity in vocabulary were associated with increased talking and mands for verbalization presented by partners.

Generalized Effects of Enhanced Milieu Teaching.

One factor that is critical to the successful integration of children using augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems is establishing interaction with peers. AAC systems have the potential to increase the opportunities for interaction, but successful social interaction is dependent on a range of factors including the communicative knowledge, skills, and attitudes of partners. The present study attempted to increase the quantity of social interaction in classroom settings between children (aged 5 to 9 years) using AAC systems and their peers. A multifaceted intervention was directed at communicative partners, and most particularly, peers. The study was 15 weeks in duration and utilised a multiple baseline across subjects design. The study demonstrated the effectiveness of an intervention to increase social interaction.

Promoting Interaction with Children using Augmentative Communication through a Peer‐directed Intervention

Preface. Acknowledgments. 1. Introduction to Language Acquisition, Linda McCormick. 2. Language Theory and Practice, Diane Frome Loeb. 3. Characteristics of Students with Language and Communication Difficulties, Linda McCormick and Diane Frome Loeb. 4. Working with Families, Nancy Ratokalau Robinson. 5. Policies and Practices, Linda McCormick. 6. Diagnostic and Description Assessment, Diane Frome Loeb. 7. Ecological Assessment and Planning, Linda McCormick. 8. Language Intervention and Support, Linda McCormick. 9. Language Intervention with Infants and Toddlers, Ken M. Bleile. 10. Language Intervention in the Inclusive Preschool, Linda McCormick. 11. Facilitating Literacy In Young Children, Mary Ross Moran. 12. Special Needs of Young Children with Severe Disabilities, Mary Jo Noonan and Ellin Siegel-Causey. 13. Supporting Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Linda McCormick. 14. Children with Culturally Diverse Backgrounds, Betty H. Bunce.

Linda McCormick

Papers

Supporting Children with Communication Difficulties in Inclusive Settings: School-Based Language Intervention

Early Language Intervention: An Introduction