Introduction to synaptic circuits, Gordon M.Shepherd and Christof Koch membrane properties and neurotransmitter actions, David A.McCormick peripheral ganglia, Paul R.Adams and Christof Koch spinal cord - ventral horn, Robert E.Burke olfactory bulb, Gordon M.Shepherd, and Charles A.Greer retina, Peter Sterling cerebellum, Rodolfo R.Llinas and Kerry D.Walton thalamus, S.Murray Sherman and Christof Koch basal ganglia, Charles J.Wilson olfactory cortex, Lewis B.Haberly hippocampus, Thomas H.Brown and Anthony M.Zador neocortex, Rodney J.Douglas and Kevan A.C.Martin Gordon M.Shepherd. Appendix: Dendretic electrotonus and synaptic integration.

The synaptic organization of the brain

Branching dendritic trees and motoneuron membrane resistivity.

Action potential initiation and backpropagation in neurons of the mammalian CNS

Section I-Peripheral Nerve.- 1 Peripheral Nerve Structure.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Histology and Development.- 3. The Axon.- 3.1. Filaments and Microtubules.- 3.2. Other Organelles and the Axolemma.- 4. Sheaths of Axons.- 4.1. Schwann Cells.- 4.2. Myelin.- 4.3. Function of Schwann Cells and Their Myelin Sheaths.- 4.4. Connective Tissue Sheaths.- 5. References.- 2 The Nerve Impulse.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Passive Electrical Properties.- 3. Voltage-Clamp Analysis of the Ionic Current.- 4. Momentary Current-Voltage Relations.- 5. The Threshold Conditions for Excitation.- 6. Factors Determining Conduction Velocity.- 7. References.- 3 Axoplasmic Transport-Energy Metabolism and Mechanism.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Fast Axoplasmic Transport.- 2.1. Characterization.- 2.2. Mechanism and Energy Supply.- 2.3. Transport and Membrane Function.- 3. Slow Axoplasmic Transport.- 3.1. Characterization.- 3.2. Mechanism.- 4. References.- Section IIA-Junctional Transmission-Structure.- 4 Neuromuscular Junctions and Electric Organs.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Typical Neuromuscular Junction.- 2.1. Distribution and Location of Nerve Terminals.- 2.2. The Axon.- 2.3. The Synaptic Space.- 2.4. Postjunctional Muscle Fiber.- 3. Variations of Motor End Plates.- 3.1. Variations from Class to Class.- 3.2. Endings on Slow-Twitch and Rapid-Twitch Fibers.- 3.3. Endings on Slow Tonic Muscle Fibers.- 4. Electric Organs.- 4.1. Electrocytes.- 4.2. Innervation and Ultrastructure.- 5. References.- 5 The Peripheral Autonomic System.- 1. Anatomical Considerations: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions.- 2. Morphological Observations.- 2.1. Preganglionic Neurons.- 2.2. Postganglionic Neurons.- 2.3. Adrenal and Extra-Adrenal Chromaffin Cells.- 3. References.- 6 Ultrastructure of Ganglionic Junctions.- 1. General Considerations.- 2. Sympathetic Ganglia.- 2.1. Amphibia.- 2.2. Reptiles.- 2.3. Mammals.- 2.4. Some Effects of Different Fixatives.- 3. Parasympathetic Ganglia.- 3.1. Ciliary Ganglion.- 3.2. Otic Ganglion.- 3.3. Ganglia of the Enteric Plexuses.- 3.4. Cardiac Ganglion Cells.- 4. Summary and Comment.- 5. References.- Section IIB-Junctional Transmission-Function.- 7(i) Neuromuscular Transmission-Presynaptic Factors.- 1. Synthesis, Storage, and Release of Acetylcholine.- 1.1. Synthesis of ACh.- 1.2. Storage and Release.- 2. The Acceleration of Release by Nerve Impulses.- 2.1. The Role of the Nerve Impulse.- 2.2. The Role of Ca2+.- 2.3. After- Effects of Depolarization-Secretion Coupling.- 3. References.- 7 (ii) Neuromuscular Transmission-The Transmitter-Receptor Combination.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Molecular Basis of Chemoelectric Transduction.- 3. Pharmacology.- 4. Chemical Nature of the Acetylcholine Receptor.- 5. Desensitization.- 6. References.- 7 (iii) Neuromuscular Transmission-Enzymatic Destruction of Acetylcholine.- 1. Location and Measurement of Cholinesterases at the Junction.- 1.1. Histochemical Staining.- 1.2. Microchemical Methods.- 1.3. Assay of External AChE.- 1.4. Radioautographic Methods.- 2. Amounts and Types of Cholinesterase at the Junctions.- 3. Requirement for AChE in Impulse Transmission.- 4. Relation of AChE to ACh- Receptors.- 5. Quantitative Relation of AChE to ACh at the End Plate.- 6. References.- 8 Ganglionic Transmission.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Response of Autonomic Ganglia to Preganglionic Volleys.- 2.1. Response of Normal Ganglia.- 2.2. Response of Curarized Ganglia.- 2.3. Slow Ganglionic Responses and Afterdischarges.- 3. Electrical Constants of Ganglion Cell Membrane.- 4. Action Potentials of Single Ganglion Cells.- 4.1. Response to Antidromic Stimulation.- 4.2. Response to Direct Intracellular Stimulation.- 4.3. Response to Orthodromic Stimulation.- 4.4. Ionic Requirement for Generation of Action Potential.- 5. Nature and Electrogenesis of Postsynaptic Potentials.- 5.1. The "Fast" Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential.- 5.2. The "Slow" Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential.- 5.3. The "Late Slow" Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential.- 5.4. The "Slow" Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential.- 6. Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors at Preganglionic Nerve Terminals.- 6.1. Cholinergic Receptor Site.- 6.2. Adrenergic Receptor Site.- 7. References.- 9 Function of Autonomic Ganglia.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Ganglia as Coordinating Centers.- 2.1. The Relay Hypothesis of Ganglionic Function.- 2.2. Development of a Stochastic Hypothesis.- 3. Experimental Evidence.- 3.1. Observed Patterns of Innervation.- 3.2. Ganglionic Activity and Factors Influencing It.- 3.3. Relative Autonomy of Ganglia.- 4. Conclusions.- 5. References.- 10 Peripheral Autonomic Transmission.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Definition of the Autonomic Neuromuscular Junction.- 2.1. Relation of Nerve Fibers to Muscle Effector Bundles.- 2.2. Relation of Nerve Fibers to Individual Smooth Muscle Cells.- 3. Adrenergic Transmission.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Structure of Adrenergic Neurons and Storage of Noradrenaline.- 3.3. Electrophysiology of Adrenergic Transmission.- 3.4. Ionic Basis of the Action of Catecholamines on the Postjunctional Membrane.- 3.5. Summary.- 4. Cholinergic Transmission.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Localization of Acetylcholinesterase.- 4.3. Electrophysiology of Cholinergic Transmission.- 4.4. Ionic Basis of the Action of ACh on the Postjunctional Membrane.- 4.5. Summary.- 5. Purinergic Transmission.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Electrophysiology of Purinergic Transmission.- 5.3. Summary.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 11 "Trophic" Functions.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Regulation of Taste Buds.- 3. Regulation of Amphibian Limb Regeneration.- 4. Regulation of Physiological and Metabolic Properties of Muscle.- 4.1. Resting Membrane Potential.- 4.2. Acetylcholine Sensitivity.- 4.3. Cholinesterase Activity.- 4.4. The Role of ACh Release.- 4.5. The Dynamic Nature of the Muscle Fiber.- 4.6. Plasticity of the Motor Unit.- 5. Mechanisms of Neural Regulation.- 6. References.- Section III-Receptors-Structure and Function.- 12 Cutaneous Receptors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Morphology of Cutaneous Nerves.- 2.1. Uniformity of Cutaneous Axons.- 2.2. Relative Numbers of Myelinated and Nonmyelinated Axons.- 3. Morphology of Cutaneous Receptors.- 3.1. Encapsulated Receptors.- 3.2. Unencapsulated Corpuscular Receptors.- 3.3. Noncorpuscular Receptors.- 4. Physiology of Cutaneous Receptors.- 4.1. Cutaneous Mechanoreceptors.- 4.2. Cutaneous Thermoreceptors.- 4.3. Nociceptors.- 5. References.- 13 The Pacinian Corpuscle.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Morphology.- 3. Afferent Responses to Mechanical Stimuli.- 4. Mechanical Properties of the Corpuscle.- 5. Receptor Potentials.- 6. Impulse Activity in the Nerve Terminal.- 7. Distribution of Pacinian Corpuscles.- 8. Central Effects of Impulses from Pacinian Corpuscles.- 9. References.- 14 Receptors in Muscles and Joints.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Joint Receptors.- 3. Tendon Organs.- 4. Muscle Spindles.- 4.1. Reptiles.- 4.2. Amphibia.- 4.3. Birds.- 4.4. Mammals.- 5. Uncertain Origin of Adaptation.- 6. References.- 15 Enteroceptors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 2.1. Histology.- 2.2. Physiology.- 3. Cardiovascular Receptors.- 3.1. Systemic Arterial Baroreceptors.- 3.2. Pulmonary Arterial Baroreceptors.- 3.3. Ventricular Receptors.- 3.4. Atriovenous Receptors.- 4. Respiratory System Receptors.- 4.1. Cough and Irritant Receptors.- 4.2. Pulmonary Stretch Receptors.- 4.3. Type J Receptors.- 4.4. Other Receptors.- 5. Alimentary System Receptors.- 5.1. Muscular Receptors.- 5.2. Serosal Receptors.- 5.3. Muscularis Mucosae Receptors.- 5.4. Chemoreceptors.- 5.5 Hepatic Osmoreceptors.- 6. Urinary Tract Receptors.- 6.1. Bladder.- 6.2. Urethra.- 7. Other Enteroreceptors.- 8. References.- 16 Arterial Chemoreceptors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Structure.- 2.1. Light Microscopy.- 2.2. Electron Microscopy.- 2.3. Degeneration Studies.- 3. Function.- 3.1. Types of Activity in the Nerve Supply to the Receptor Complex.- 3.2. The Type I Cell.- 4. The Identity of the Receptor.- 4.1. The Received View.- 4.2. A New Hypothesis.- 5. References.- 17 Taste Receptors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Gustatory Nerve Fiber Response to Chemical Stimuli.- 2.1. Multiple Sensitivity of Single Chorda Tympani Fibers.- 2.2. Neural Code for Quality of Taste and "Across-Fiber Pattern" Theory.- 3. Electrical Responses of Gustatory Cells to Chemical Stimuli.- 3.1. Innervation and Structure of Taste Bud.- 3.2. How Do Gustatory Cells Respond to Chemical Stimuli?.- 4. References.

The Peripheral Nervous System

The axon initial segment (AIS) is a specialized region in neurons where action potentials are initiated. It is commonly assumed that this process requires a high density of voltage-gated sodium (Na(+)) channels. Paradoxically, the results of patch-clamp studies suggest that the Na(+) channel density at the AIS is similar to that at the soma and proximal dendrites. Here we provide data obtained by antibody staining, whole-cell voltage-clamp and Na(+) imaging, together with modeling, which indicate that the Na(+) channel density at the AIS of cortical pyramidal neurons is approximately 50 times that in the proximal dendrites. Anchoring of Na(+) channels to the cytoskeleton can explain this discrepancy, as disruption of the actin cytoskeleton increased the Na(+) current measured in patches from the AIS. Computational models required a high Na(+) channel density (approximately 2,500 pS microm(-2)) at the AIS to account for observations on action potential generation and backpropagation. In conclusion, action potential generation requires a high Na(+) channel density at the AIS, which is maintained by tight anchoring to the actin cytoskeleton.

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Action potential generation requires a high sodium channel density in the axon initial segment.

1. Spikes evoked in spinal motoneurons by antidromic stimulation normally present an inflection in their rising phase. A similar inflection is present in spikes evoked by direct stimulation with short pulses. 2. In either case the inflection becomes less prominent if the motoneuron membrane is depolarized and more prominent when it is hyperpolarized. Both antidromic and direct spikes may fall from the level of the inflection thus evoking a "small spike" only if sufficient hyperpolarization is applied. Similar events occur when antidromic or direct spikes are evoked in the aftermath of a preceding spike. 3. Spikes evoked by direct stimuli applied shortly after firing of a "small spike" may also become partially blocked at a critical stimulus interval. At shorter intervals, however, spike size again increases and no inflection can be detected in the rising phase. 4. When a weak direct stimulus evokes a small spike only, a stronger stimulus may evoke a full spike. Curves of the strength of the stimuli required for eliciting small or full spikes have been constructed in a number of conditions. 5. To explain the results it is assumed that threshold of the major portions of the soma membrane is higher than the threshold of the axon, the transition occurring over a finite area near the axon hillock. Following antidromic or direct stimulation, soma excitation is then initiated in the region of the axon hillock. Spread of activity towards the soma occurs at first slowly and with low safety factor. At this stage block may be easily evoked. Safety factor for propagation increases rapidly as the growing impulse involves larger and larger areas of the soma membrane so that, once the critical areas are excited, activation of the remaining portions of the soma membrane will suddenly occur.

https://rupress.org/jgp/article-pdf/40/5/735/1241572/735.pdf

M. G. F. Fuortes

Papers

Steps in the production of motoneuron spikes.