Glycosylated forms of phosphatidylinositol, which have only recently been described in eukaryotic organisms, are now known to play important roles in biological membrane function. These molecules can serve as the sole means by which particular cell-surface proteins are anchored to the membrane. Lipids with similar structures may also be involved in signal transduction mechanisms for the hormone insulin. The utilization of this novel class of lipid molecules for these two distinct functions suggests new mechanisms for the regulation of proteins in biological membranes.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/239/4837/268.full.pdf

Structural and Functional Roles of Glycosyl-Phosphatidylinositol in Membranes

Ecto-nucleotidases play a pivotal role in purinergic signal transmission. They hydrolyze extracellular nucleotides and thus can control their availability at purinergic P2 receptors. They generate extracellular nucleosides for cellular reuptake and salvage via nucleoside transporters of the plasma membrane. The extracellular adenosine formed acts as an agonist of purinergic P1 receptors. They also can produce and hydrolyze extracellular inorganic pyrophosphate that is of major relevance in the control of bone mineralization. This review discusses and compares four major groups of ecto-nucleotidases: the ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases, ecto-5′-nucleotidase, ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterases, and alkaline phosphatases. Only recently and based on crystal structures, detailed information regarding the spatial structures and catalytic mechanisms has become available for members of these four ecto-nucleotidase families. This permits detailed predictions of their catalytic mechanisms and a comparison between the individual enzyme groups. The review focuses on the principal biochemical, cell biological, catalytic, and structural properties of the enzymes and provides brief reference to tissue distribution, and physiological and pathophysiological functions.

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Cellular function and molecular structure of ecto-nucleotidases

A diverse range of membrane proteins of Type 1 or Type II topology also occur as a circulating, soluble form. These soluble forms are often derived from the membrane form by proteolysis by a group of enzymes referred to collectively as 'secretases' or 'sheddases'. The cleavage generally occurs close to the extracellular face of the membrane, releasing physiologically active protein. This secretion process also provides a mechanism for down-regulating the protein at the cell surface. Examples of such post-translational proteolysis are seen in the Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein, the vasoregulatory enzyme angiotensin converting enzyme, transforming growth factor-alpha, the tumour necrosis factor ligand and receptor superfamilies, certain cytokine receptors, and others. Since the proteins concerned are involved in pathophysiological processes such as neurodegeneration, apoptosis, oncogenesis and inflammation, the secretases could provide novel therapeutic targets. Recent characterization of these individual secretases has revealed common features, particularly sensitivity to certain metalloprotease inhibitors and upregulation of activity by phorbol esters. It is therefore likely that a closely related family of metallosecretases controls the surface expression of multiple integral membrane proteins. Current knowledge of the various secretases are compared in this Review, and strategies for cell-free assays of such proteases are outlined as a prelude to their ultimate purification and cloning.

/pdf/membrane-protein-secretases-15h1ja5ifq.pdf

Membrane protein secretases

The discovery of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) membrane anchors has had a significant impact on several areas of eukaryote cell biology. Studies of the African trypanosome, which expresses a dense surface coat of GPI-anchored variant surface glycoprotein, have played important roles in establishing the general structure of GPI membrane anchors and in delineating the pathway of GPI biosynthesis. The major cell-surface molecules of related parasites are also rich in GPI-anchored glycoproteins and/or GPI-related glycophospholipids, and differences in substrate specificity between enzymes of trypanosomal and mammalian GPI biosynthesis may have potential for the development of anti-parasite therapies. Apart from providing stable membrane anchorage, GPI anchors have been implicated in the sequestration of GPI-anchored proteins into specialised membrane microdomains, known as lipid rafts, and in signal transduction events.

The structure, biosynthesis and functions of glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchors, and the contributions of trypanosome research

The glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol anchor of membrane proteins.

Purified phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C from Staphylococcus aureus released a substantial proportion of the total alkaline phosphatase activity from a wide range of tissues from several mammalian species. Co-purification of the phospholipase C and alkaline phosphatase-releasing activities and the inhibition of both these activities by iso-osmotic salt solutions suggested that the releasing effect was unlikely to be due to a contaminant.

/pdf/release-of-alkaline-phosphatase-from-membranes-by-a-2hvqa0ib8y.pdf

M G Low

Papers

Release of alkaline phosphatase from membranes by a phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C.