Solar energetic particles (SEPs) are one manifestation of violent energy releases on the Sun. The study of their acceleration and propagation reveals information about basic plasma-physical processes, such as reconnection, shock acceleration and wave–particle interaction, in astrophysical objects, such as stars, magnetospheres or the diluted plasma of the interstellar or interplanetary medium. This paper introduces the current classification scheme for solar energetic particle events, its relation to the underlying acceleration processes, and addresses open questions regarding the better understanding of SEPs as well as the underlying physical processes. Modifications to the current paradigm considering more recent observations will be suggested.

Current views on impulsive and gradual solar energetic particle events

[1] We examine the effects on the midlatitude ionospheric D region of the 7 April 2000 storm and the “Halloween storm” of late October 2003 by means of the associated perturbations of several subionospheric VLF signals propagating in both the northern and southern hemispheres. We use VLF nighttime data from the Holographic Array for Ionospheric/Lightning Research (HAIL), located in the United States (L = 2–3), as well as data from Palmer Station, Antarctica (L = 2.4). On 7 April 2000, a ∼5 dB depression in VLF amplitudes is observed at multiple HAIL stations, with a depression onset that occurs later for VLF signal paths at lower latitudes. On both 7 April 2000 and 31 October 2003, fluctuations in the amplitude of the VLF signals are first observed in the premidnight sector and persist through the end of the data-recording period (dawn). The frequency content of the fluctuations is predominantly in the 0.01 to 0.02 Hz range but extends up to ∼0.03 Hz. Increases in the energetic electron flux in the loss cone as measured by the NOAA-POES satellites are observed on both 7 April 2000 and 31 October 2003. We suggest that both the signal depressions and subsequent fluctuations are associated with variations in the precipitation flux of energetic electrons onto the upper atmosphere. Auroral activity patterns based on data from the NOAA-POES satellites show that the equatorward edge of the auroral oval expanded equatorward to lower L shells (L < 3) during both geomagnetic storms. Using the auoral activity patterns and multiple VLF/LF signal paths, we provide evidence that the fluctuations and the signal depression coincide with the equatorward edge of the auroral oval extending over the perturbed VLF/LF Great Circle Paths. Quantitative modeling of subionospheric VLF wave propagation incorporating energetic electron flux measurements (and the associated altitude profiles of secondary ionization) yields results consistent with the variations in the VLF signal amplitude observed.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2005JA011346

Perturbations of midlatitude subionospheric VLF signals associated with lower ionospheric disturbances during major geomagnetic storms

[1] Ionospheric effects of energetic electron precipitation induced by controlled injection of VLF signals from a ground based transmitter are observed via subionospheric VLF remote sensing. The 21.4 kHz NPM transmitter in Lualualei, Hawaii is keyed ON-OFF in 30 minute periodic sequences. The same periodicity is observed in the amplitude and phase of the sub ionospherically propagating signals of the 24.8 kHz NLK (Jim Creek, Washington) and 25.2 kHz NLM (LaMoure, North Dakota) transmitters measured at Midway Island. Periodic perturbations of the NLK signal observed at Palmer, Antarctica suggest that energetic electrons scattered at longitudes of NPM continue to be precipitated into the atmosphere as they drift toward the South Atlantic Anomaly. Utilizing a model of the magnetospheric waveparticle interaction, ionospheric energy deposition, and subionospheric VLF propagation, the precipitated energy flux induced by the NPM transmitter is estimated to peak at

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2006GL028494

Subionospheric VLF observations of transmitter-induced precipitation of inner radiation belt electrons

We report on the first detection of ionospheric disturbances caused by short repeated gamma-ray bursts from the magnetar SGR J1550-5418. Very low frequency (VLF) radio wave data obtained in South America clearly show sudden amplitude and phase changes at the corresponding times of eight soft gamma-ray repeater bursts. Maximum amplitude and phase changes of the VLF signals appear to be correlated with the gamma-ray fluence. On the other hand, VLF recovery timescales do not show any significant correlation with the fluence, possibly suggesting that the bursts' spectra are not similar to each other. In summary, Earth's ionosphere can be used as a very large gamma-ray detector and the VLF observations provide us with a new method to monitor high-energy astrophysical phenomena without interruption such as Earth occultation.

/pdf/first-very-low-frequency-detection-of-short-repeated-bursts-3n1uca08de.pdf

First very low frequency detection of short repeated bursts from magnetar sgr j1550-5418

Vertical profiles of 210Po and 210Pb in the water column were measured in the dissolved phase ( 51 µm) particles at seven stations along the US GEOTRACES North Atlantic Zonal Transect (GA03). Mass balance calculations were employed to assess nuclide exchange rates at the dissolved-small particle interface and between small and large particles, and to quantify export with settling large particles. In the surface ocean, 210Po scavenging is linearly correlated with the concentration of particulate organic carbon (POC) in large particles, supporting the role of biogenic particle in 210Po bioaccumulation and export. In stations near the coast, this link is more complex due to the variable source of biogenic material and temporal changes in the surface biogeochemical and physical conditions. At depth, 210Po exhibits significant widespread deficit with respect to 210Pb that could in part be attributed to in situ 210Po scavenging and may be related to surface biological productivity. As previously reported the 210Pb scavenging rates in the surface ocean were higher at ocean margins. At depth, 210Pb scavenging increases with depth and eastward due to the increase of adsorption sites available in the benthic layers and to a regional contribution of benthic 210Pb scavenging and/or particle flux, respectively. The benthic nepheloid layer (BNL) and the Hydrothermal TAG plume distinctly enhance 210Pb scavenging due to increased surface adsorption in association with resuspended or freshly formed particles. In contrast, 210Po is not seen to be significantly scavenged in these environments due to its relatively short half-life and the long residence time of particles.

/pdf/210-po-and-210-pb-distribution-dissolved-particulate-3g7vwj3slq.pdf

210 Po and 210 Pb distribution, dissolved-particulate exchange rates, and particulate export along the North Atlantic US GEOTRACES GA03 section

Subionospheric very low frequency and low-frequency (VLF/LF) transmitter signals received at middle-latitude ground stations at nighttime were found to exhibit pulsating behavior with periods that were typically in the ∼5–60 s range but sometimes reached ∼100 s. The amplitude versus time shape of the pulsations was often triangular or zigzag-like, hence the term “zigzag effect.” Variations in the envelope shape were usually in the direction of faster development than recovery. Episodes of zigzag activity at Siple, Antarctica (L ∼4.3), and Saskatoon, Canada (L ∼4.2), were found to occur widely during the predawn hours and were not observed during geomagnetically quiet periods. The fluctuations appeared to be caused by ionospheric perturbations at the ∼ 85 km nighttime VLF reflection height in regions poleward of the plasmapause. We infer that in the case of the Saskatoon and Siple data, the perturbations were centered within ∼500 km of the stations and within ∼ 100–200 km of the affected signal paths. Their horizontal extent is inferred to have been in the range ∼50–200 km. The assembled evidence, supported by Corcuffs [1996] recent research at Kerguelen (L ∼3.7), suggests that the underlying cause of the effect was pulsating auroral precipitation. The means by which that precipitation produces ionospheric perturbations at 85 km is not yet clear. Candidate mechanisms include (1) acoustic waves that propagate downward from precipitation regions above the ∼ 85 km VLF reflection level; (2) quasi-static perturbation electric fields that give rise to E×B drifts of the bottomside ionosphere; (3) secondary ionization production and subsequent decay at or below 85 km. Those zigzag fluctuations exhibiting notably faster development than recovery probably originated in secondary ionization produced near 85 km by the more energetic (E >40 keV) electrons in the incident electron spectrum.

/pdf/quasiperiodic-5-60-s-fluctuations-of-vlf-signals-propagating-fs9jog0oyp.pdf

M. Galand

Papers

Quasiperiodic 5-60 s fluctuations of VLF signals propagating in the Earth-ionosphere waveguide: A result of pulsating auroral particle precipitation?