Economic losses resulting from vineyard mealybug infestations have increased dramatically during the past decade. In response, there has been a cosmopolitan effort to improve control strategies and better understand mealybug biology and ecology, as well as their role as vectors of plant pathogens. Mealybugs are named for the powdery secretions covering their bodies. The most important vineyard mealybugs belong to the subfamily Pseudococcinae (Hardy et al. 2008). Although numerous mealybug species are found in vineyards, this chapter will cover only those that have risen to the level of primary pest. These are the grape mealybug, Pseudococcus maritimus (Ehrhorn), obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret), long-tailed mealybug, Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni Tozzetti), citrophilus mealybug, Pseudococcus calceolariae (Maskell), vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Signoret), citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso), pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), and the newly identified Gills mealybug, Ferrisia gilli Gullan. Meanwhile in Brazil and India, Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) and Xenococcus annandalei Silvestri respectively, feed on vine roots. Collectively, these species will be referred to as the vineyard mealybugs, although their host range is diverse and many are pests of other agricultural crops and ornamental plants (McKenzie 1967; Ben-Dov 1995).

Biology and Management of Mealybugs in Vineyards

The hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green, was first reported in the Caribbean in 1994 in Grenada. This was the first record of the insect as a major pest in the New World. By the beginning of 2001, the pest had spread to over 25 territories from Guyana and Venezuela in the South to Bahamas in the North. The pest has also extended its distribution to Central America (Belize) and North America (California, USA). Early attempts to control the pest using pesticides resulted in failure and a classical biological control approach was adopted. Several exotic natural enemies were introduced but control was attributed to Anagyrus kamali Moursi and Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant. In all countries where biological control was implemented, this resulted in success. This paper reviews the remarkable success story. Information is provided on the distribution and factors leading to rapid spread of the pest, its pest status and resultant economic losses, and implementation of the biological control effort.

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Biological Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug, Maconellicoccus Hirsutus Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in the Caribbean

A Review of Biological Control in the Ethiopian Region.

Mealybugs are common sap feeding pests that infest a wide range of agricultural and horticultural crops. Besides weakening the plants, the honey dew secreted by mealybugs allow the growth of sooty mould, giving the plants a blackened appearance. Severe infestations can reduce plant vigour and lead to stunted growth and premature leaf fall. In India, different species of mealy bugs (viz. Planococcus citri, Planococcus lilacinus, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Paracoccus marginatus, Phenacoccus solenopsis etc.) have become major pests on various crops. Recently, invasive species like Phenacoccus madeirensis and Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi have been recorded as serious pests on several host plants. The cassava mealy bug Phenacoccus manihoti, one of the most serious pests of cassava worldwide, has recently reached Asia, BOOK REVIEW

Mealybugs and their Management in Agricultural and Horticultural crops

Over recent years, research has shown the ways that national governments have seemingly ceded some of their autonomy in education policy development to international organisations (IOs) in the context of globalisation and one of its conduits, Europeanisation. This article develops the idea that IOs, and particularly the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), have had significant policy influence within the context of education policy development in the European education space. The article focuses on an examination of the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the more recent Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) in order to discuss processes of problematisation and normalisation of the notions of 'skills' and 'competencies' by the two major European IOs, the OECD and the European Commission. It examines the ways both concepts have turned into a policy problem in need of soft governance through new data, standards and policy solutions. The article presents work in progress as part of the new project Transnational Policy Learning: a comparative study of OECD and EU education policy in constructing the skills and competencies agenda, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council. It is therefore a speculative article, setting out the research agenda and explaining the reasons why the construction of policy problems at the European education policy level needs to be further problematised itself by the research community.

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International Organisations and the Shared Construction of Policy ‘Problems’: Problematisation and Change in Education Governance in Europe

Development and feeding potential of the coccinellid predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieti Muls. was studied on the eggs, nymphs and adult females of the grape mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green). The life cycle of the predator was prolonged when it was reared on eggs of mealybugs. Incubation period ranged 4 to 5 days. The grub took 22.80, 13.85 and 13.45 days when reared on eggs, nymphs and adult of male mealybugs, respectively. The prepupal and pupal periods averaged 2.15 and 8.50 days, respectively. Adult longevity averaged 55.90 days for males and 61.40 days for females. The mean fecundity of a mated female was 210.52. The coccinellid grub consumed a total of 881.30 eggs or 259.00 nymphs or 27.55 adult females of M. hirsutus under laboratory conditions.

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Development and feeding potential of coccinellid predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. on the grape mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green).

The papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is native of Mexico and /or Central and North America. Since its description in 1992, it has invaded several Carbbean Islands, Florida, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Taiwan, India, Bangladesh, West Africa, and it is likely to spread many other countries. It is highly polyphagus attacking more than 70 plant species causing severe loss. Insecticides failed to give adequate control of P. marginatus . On the other hand, natural enemies particularly, Acerophagus papayae Noyes and Schauff were highly useful to suppress the papaya mealybug. Its origin, distribution, taxonomy, biology, ecology, host range, natural enemies and methods of control particularly classical biological control are reviewed here.

Paracoccus marginatus , an Invasive Mealybug of Papaya and its Biological Control - an overview

The coccinellid predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Muls.) was multiplied in largeÂ numbers and adult beetles were released against Maconellicoccus hirsutus in three localities in Karnataka. The release of predatory beetles gave excellent control of the grape mealybug within 75 days.

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Field Evaluation of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muts. in the Suppression of Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) on Grapevine

Fodder crops and grasses harbour large number of mealybugs throughout the world (Table 66.1). Though a number of mealybugs are recorded on grasses and fodder crops, only some are known to cause economic damage.

M. Mani

Papers

Mealybugs and their Management in Agricultural and Horticultural crops

Development and feeding potential of coccinellid predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. on the grape mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green).

Paracoccus marginatus , an Invasive Mealybug of Papaya and its Biological Control - an overview

Field Evaluation of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muts. in the Suppression of Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) on Grapevine

Forage Crops and Grasses