Pupillometry research has experienced an enormous revival in the last two decades. Here we briefly review the surge of recent studies on task-evoked pupil dilation in the context of cognitive control tasks with the primary aim being to evaluate the feasibility of using pupil dilation as an index of effort exertion, rather than task demand or difficulty. Our review shows that across the three cognitive control domains of updating, switching, and inhibition, increases in task demands typically leads to increases in pupil dilation. Studies show a diverging pattern with respect to the relationship between pupil dilation and performance and we show how an effort account of pupil dilation can provide an explanation of these findings. We also discuss future directions to further corroborate this account in the context of recent theories on cognitive control and effort and their potential neurobiological substrates.

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Pupil dilation as an index of effort in cognitive control tasks: A review

Objective:The objective of this paper was to outline an explanatory framework for understanding effects of cognitive load on driving performance and to review the existing experimental literature in the light of this framework.Background:Although there is general consensus that taking the eyes off the forward roadway significantly impairs most aspects of driving, the effects of primarily cognitively loading tasks on driving performance are not well understood.Method:Based on existing models of driver attention, an explanatory framework was outlined. This framework can be summarized in terms of the cognitive control hypothesis: Cognitive load selectively impairs driving subtasks that rely on cognitive control but leaves automatic performance unaffected. An extensive literature review was conducted wherein existing results were reinterpreted based on the proposed framework.Results:It was demonstrated that the general pattern of experimental results reported in the literature aligns well with the cognitive c...

/pdf/effects-of-cognitive-load-on-driving-performance-the-4rvcrudjdw.pdf

Effects of Cognitive Load on Driving Performance: The Cognitive Control Hypothesis.

This study investigates the influence of non-driving-related task (NDRT) on takeover performance in a highly automated driving (HAD) context and the effect of workload on driver’s takeover performance. A driving simulator was used to evaluate how well a driver resumes control of a vehicle after being in a HAD situation during which they performed a NDRT. For both the visual performance and takeover capability, there was a significant difference based on the task carried out; however, the reaction times when reaching for the steering wheel did not differ among the tasks. The result on workload demonstrate that NDRT type has significant effect while a positive correlation between the performance dimension and takeover was found. In addition, takeover performance for interaction with the entertainment console exhibits a significantly positive correlation, whereas watching a video or interacting with a smartphone exhibits mostly a significantly negative correlation with workload dimensions. These results provide implication on the effect of tasks desired and enabled to be performed by drivers in HAD and its influence on the transition of control.

Non-driving-related tasks, workload, and takeover performance in highly automated driving contexts

The traffic accident risk includes three aspects, traffic accident probability, traffic accident severity, and traffic accident trend respectively. In this paper, nine indicators are selected to evaluate the traffic accident risk. The grey relational analysis method was used to determine the weights, and the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method was used to calculate the risk. These methods were applied to assess the comprehensive risk of traffic accident in 31 provinces in China. The results show that the average value of traffic accident risk is 55.17. Nine provinces which are located in the northwest area and southeast area belong to the high-risk level. The medium-risk areas are widely distributed in the central, northeast, and southwest regions. The low-risk areas are Jilin, Neimenggu, Guizhou, and Beijing. The results have great significance for the measurement and management of regional traffic accident risk.

The assessment of traffic accident risk based on grey relational analysis and fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method

Driver workload estimation using a novel hybrid method of error reduction ratio causality and support vector machine

Recently, there has been a growing need among researchers to understand the problem of cognitive workload induced by auditory-verbal-vocal tasks while driving in realistic conditions. This is due to the fact that we need (a) valid methods to evaluate in-vehicle electronic devices using voice control systems and (b) experimental data to build more reliable driver state monitoring systems. In this study, we examined the effects of cognitive workload induced by the delayed digit recall task (n-back) while driving. We used a high-fidelity driving simulator and a highway scenario with moderate traffic to study eye movements in realistic driving conditions. This study included 46 participants, and the results indicate that a change in pupil size is most sensitive for measuring changes in cognitive demand in auditory-verbal-vocal tasks. Less sensitive measures included changes in fixation location and blink rate. Fixation durations and the driving performance metrics did not provide sensitive measures of graded levels of cognitive demand. Keywords: Driver distraction;

Towards testing auditory–vocal interfaces and detecting distraction while driving: A comparison of eye-movement measures in the assessment of cognitive workload

Over one million people die each year on the roads and about 20-50 million are injured. Traffic safety is a global problem that needs interdisciplinary scientific approach to develop methodology for safety studies that will lead to valid conclusions and in the end to suitable preventive measures. It is difficult to define what a safe and unsafe behaviour is. Transportation research tries to find relation between significant variables and traffic safety in the triangle of interaction between human, vehicle and environment. Raw accidents data excludes ex-ante evaluations and is insufficient due to the rare frequency and difficulty with investigating causes. There is still lack of consensus between researchers on usage of the traffic safety indicators and their cut-off values. Article presents different methods for measuring driver behaviour and objective behavioural indicators that are commonly used as traffic safety measures e.g. time to collision, post-encroachment-time, deceleration rate, time headway, red-light violations, lane deviations, gap acceptance and others. The aim of the paper is to provide general framework for exploring valid and reliable variables in the traffic safety studies.

/pdf/measuring-driver-behaviour-indicators-for-traffic-safety-2oeqvbpupa.pdf

Measuring driver behaviour - indicators for traffic safety

Paper describes possibilities to use advanced vehicles simulator combined with additional supporting research devices for measuring drivers' behaviour. Analyzing drivers' behaviour with driving simulators is a rapidly growing field of research, which also demands the interdisciplinary approach from different science disciplines like psychology and simulation engineering. Paper presents modern research methods in transport safety researches and devices that are used to understand better driver’s behaviour inside the driving simulator, e.g. Vienna Test System and mobile eyetracker. Paper also explains a problem of simulator sickness that frequently occurs during the studies inside the driving simulators. Main advantage of using simulators is possibility to achieve full standardization of research conditions. Visualization system based on set of four projectors and cylindrical screen with 200 degrees of vision range, which allows to completely cover the range of sight of the driver to enhance driving reality. The view in the car mirrors is presented on three LCD screens which sizes are very close to the mirrors used in real car mirrors. The scenery generated by computer simulation is moving according to the car speed in the simulation. Similarly to the passenger car simulator, simulator of truck and bus is build based on visualization system which is composed of cylindrical screen, with two hundred degrees of horizontal range of view. Simulator gives the ability to trace functioning of few different types of vehicles.

Effective methods for drivers research with use of a driving simulator

Most of road accidents are caused by human error. To study these errors road safety researchers developed selfreported measures. DBQ (Driver Behaviour Questionnaire) is one of the most frequently used tools for studies carried out in scope of traffic psychology. It has become an international standard which is used by driver behaviour researchers, yet it is still quite unknown in Poland. The questionnaire describes aberrant behaviour of the drivers in two basic dimensions: errors and violations. The main purpose of following article is to present the theoretical principles underlying the human error model, structure of this tool and polish adaption of the questionnaire. Polish version of the DBQ has 32 items in total. Another aim of the study was to investigate the factorial structure of the DBQ presented in previous studies. The reported data included a sample of 467 drivers. Reliability coefficients were calculated for each scale and their value were around .80 representing high overall reliability. Our analysis indicates that the DBQ construct was fairly congruent with the one presented in the Swedish study. Behaviours were classified due to their factor loadings in following dimensions – violations, mistakes, inattention and inexperience. Seven behaviours have different factor loading, which indicates different psychological mechanism underlying these aberrations. Issues related to these findings are discussed.

http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-1667e749-092f-4249-a1f0-2bf4cd10262d/c/NIEZGODA.pdf

Self - reported drivers’ behaviour : an application of DBQ in Poland

The article describes some algorithms for collision detection used in modern cars airbag systems. While controlling the activation of airbags and other passive safety systems, installed in modern vehicles, the algorithms must operate in the early stage of accident, because for operating effectively it is necessary to run control systems early enough, for example filling airbags before the body of the driver or passenger reaches the zone of airbag. These algorithms could be applied into the on-board eCall modules, but they would require calibration. Detection of the collision that activates eCall system must be made on the basis of measurable signals or observable events, which intensity can be relatively clearly linked to the probability serious injury of the driver and the passengers’ of the vehicle. A table summary presented in this article contains a description of the collision detection algorithm along with a brief description of the method of detection and description of the used methodology. A frequently used method is to evaluate the gradient of the change of speed the parameter V, or its combinations with different parameters, such as the derivative of acceleration, displacement, and energy of the collision. Each of the algorithms has been briefly described. The whole of article is summarized with the conclusions arising from its content.

http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/yadda/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-article-BUJ8-0020-0032/c/httpwww_bg_utp_edu_plartkones42012j20o20kones20201220no20420vol_201920kaminski2.pdf

M. Niezgoda

Papers

Towards testing auditory–vocal interfaces and detecting distraction while driving: A comparison of eye-movement measures in the assessment of cognitive workload

Measuring driver behaviour - indicators for traffic safety

Effective methods for drivers research with use of a driving simulator

Self - reported drivers’ behaviour : an application of DBQ in Poland

Collision detection algorithms in the ecall system