The smart grid is an unprecedented opportunity to shift the current energy industry into a new era of a modernized network where the power generation, transmission, and distribution are intelligently, responsively, and cooperatively managed through a bi-directional automation system. Although the domains of smart grid applications and technologies vary in functions and forms, they generally share common potentials such as intelligent energy curtailment, efficient integration of Demand Response, Distributed Renewable Generation, and Energy Storage. This paper presents a comprehensive review categorically on the recent advances and previous research developments of the smart grid paradigm over the last two decades. The main intent of the study is to provide an application-focused survey where every category and sub-category herein are thoroughly and independently investigated. The preamble of the paper highlights the concept and the structure of the smart grids. The work presented intensively and extensively reviews the recent advances on the energy data management in smart grids, pricing modalities in a modernized power grid, and the predominant components of the smart grid. The paper thoroughly enumerates the recent advances in the area of network reliability. On the other hand, the reliance on smart cities on advanced communication infrastructure promotes more concerns regarding data integrity. Therefore, the paper dedicates a sub-section to highlight the challenges and the state-of-the-art of cybersecurity. Furthermore, highlighting the emerging developments in the pricing mechanisms concludes the review.

A Comprehensive Review of Recent Advances in Smart Grids: A Sustainable Future with Renewable Energy Resources

This paper describes a control algorithm for a battery energy storage system (BESS) to deliver a charge/discharge power output in response to changes in the grid frequency constrained by the National Grid Electricity Transmission (NGET)—the primary electricity transmission network operator in the U.K.—while managing the state of charge of the BESS to optimize the availability of the system. Furthermore, this paper investigates using the BESS in order to maximize triad avoidance benefit revenues while layering other services. Simulation using a 2 MW/1 MWh lithium–titanate BESS validated model is carried out to explore possible scenarios using the proposed algorithms. Finally, experimental results of the 2 MW/1 MWh Willenhall Energy Storage System verify the performance of the proposed algorithms.

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A Battery Energy Management Strategy for U.K. Enhanced Frequency Response and Triad Avoidance

Commercial-scale, grid-connected battery energy storage system (BESS) typically operates on price-driven or peak shaving charging cycles. However, when installed in a distribution grid next to medium or large-scale photovoltaic (PV) generation, BESS can also play an important role in voltage regulation processes. Therefore, this paper proposes a new, model-driven controller which incorporates BESS into a voltage regulation scheme in order to counteract voltage variation caused by PV power fluctuations. In addition, the method optimizes control efforts and coordinates regulation actions of BESS and remaining grid devices. The algorithm was tested on a model implemented in the real-time digital simulator of a real grid equipped with a medium-scale BESS (0.6 MW/0.76 MWh) and 3.15 MWp of PV generation. As a result, the developed controller managed to regulate grid voltages quickly and without a significant influence on BESS charging cycle. The algorithm can be applied to distribution grids which already suffer from voltage fluctuations or to enhance PV generation in weak feeders by providing much faster and precise voltage control.

Real-Time Coordinated Voltage Support With Battery Energy Storage in a Distribution Grid Equipped With Medium-Scale PV Generation

Energy management of controllable loads in multi-area power systems with wind power penetration based on new supervisor fuzzy nonlinear sliding mode control

Synergies between energy arbitrage and fast frequency response for battery energy storage systems

The increasing exploitation of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) is progressively displacing large conventional power plants, thus reducing system operating reserves and stability margins. Therefore new resources for ancillary service provision are needed. Very fast and flexible response capabilities make Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) good candidates to this purpose. However, the related cycling operation may cause early performance degradation due to battery aging. Here, attention is focused on primary and secondary frequency regulation by a BESS, in a stand-alone configuration or supporting a RES-based plant. The BESS response to the measured frequency error and to the secondary control signal in mainland Italy is simulated, in terms of power and energy exchanges and State of Charge (SoC) dynamics. A simplified method is proposed to evaluate battery aging due to such operation: starting from typical characteristic curves Maximum number of cycles to end of life versus Depth of Discharge (DoD), a weighted average DoD, accounting for the actual SoC transient, is computed; the battery expected life is the ratio of the maximum number of cycles and the actual number of partial cycles done, both evaluated at the average DoD. This lifetime is finally compared to the BESS investment pay-back period.

Battery Energy Storage Systems for frequency regulation: Simplified aging evaluation

Nowadays, the large exploitation of Non-Programmable Renewable Energy Source (NPRES) generation for demand fulfillment reduces the operating hours of relevant conventional power plants, which traditionally provide the operating reserves for frequency (and voltage) control. Thus, the power system is becoming more vulnerable, also because NPRES support to ancillary service supply is often very limited. Large and fast frequency deviations, e.g., occur more often, so the risk of instability and blackout increases. New ancillary services and new providers for them are needed. Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) technologies could be good candidates, thanks to their fast response capabilities. In this work, the provision of an Enhanced (fast) Frequency Response (EFR) by a BESS is simulated, with reference to two main European synchronous areas: the UK and the Continental Europe (CE) system. The EFR service is evaluated by using real frequency data and considering the requirements issued by the UK TSO. For the CE system, those requirements are adapted according to the CE frequency behaviour. The energy exchanges requested from and carried out by the BESS, a service performance indicator, and the possible aging related to battery cycling are evaluated.

M. Rapizza

Papers

Battery Energy Storage Systems for frequency regulation: Simplified aging evaluation

Simulation of enhanced frequency response by battery storage systems: The UK versus the continental europe system