Ever-growing global energy needs and environmental damage have motivated the pursuit of sustainable energy sources and storage technologies. As attractive energy storage technologies to integrate renewable resources and electric transportation, rechargeable batteries, including lead–acid, nickel–metal hydride, nickel–cadmium, and lithium-ion batteries, are undergoing unprecedented rapid development. However, the intrinsic toxicity of rechargeable batteries arising from their use of toxic materials is potentially environmentally hazardous. Additionally, the massive production of batteries consumes numerous resources, some of which are scarce. It is therefore essential to consider battery recycling when developing battery systems. Here, we provide a systematic overview of rechargeable battery recycling from a sustainable perspective. We present state-of-the-art fundamental research and industrial technologies related to battery recycling, with a special focus on lithium-ion battery recycling. We introduce the concept of sustainability through a discussion of the life-cycle assessment of battery recycling. Considering the forecasted trend of a massive number of retired power batteries from the forecasted surge in electric vehicles, their repurposing and reuse are considered from economic, technical, environmental, and market perspectives. New opportunities, challenges, and future prospects for battery recycling are then summarized. A reinterpreted 3R strategy entailing redesign, reuse, and recycling is recommended for the future development of battery recycling.

Toward sustainable and systematic recycling of spent rechargeable batteries

Recovery of cobalt and lithium from spent lithium ion batteries using organic citric acid as leachant.

Recovery of metals from spent lithium-ion batteries with organic acids as leaching reagents and environmental assessment

This article reviews recent studies on the recycling of spent lead paste and describes novel technologies. Although the pyrometallurgical process has been dominant in the secondary lead recycling processes, there has been growing pressure to achieve sustainable greener recycling methods to address the environmental pollution issues caused by emissions of lead particulates and sulfur oxides in the traditional smelting route. The electrowinning process has been studied for many years, but high energy-consumption and emissions of toxic components such as fluoride compounds have caused concerns and hindered rapid growth in industrial application. In last 10 years, many sustainable and environmental friendly processes, such as paste-to-paste recycling and hydrogen-lead oxide fuel cell method have been proposed for recycling spent lead paste from discarded lead acid batteries. Ultrafine leady oxide could be prepared from spent lead pastes via newly developed novel hydrometallurgical routes, and then applied as active materials in the cathode and the anode for making high-performance lead acid batteries. It is a green alternative for recycling of spent lead acid battery and other secondary lead.

M.S. Sonmez

Papers

Leaching of waste battery paste components. Part 1: Lead citrate synthesis from PbO and PbO2

Leaching of waste battery paste components. Part 2: Leaching and desulphurisation of PbSO4 by citric acid and sodium citrate solution