Part I. Experimental Studies: 2. Experiment in psychology 3. Experiments on perceiving III Experiments on imaging 4-8. Experiments on remembering: (a) The method of description (b) The method of repeated reproduction (c) The method of picture writing (d) The method of serial reproduction (e) The method of serial reproduction picture material 9. Perceiving, recognizing, remembering 10. A theory of remembering 11. Images and their functions 12. Meaning Part II. Remembering as a Study in Social Psychology: 13. Social psychology 14. Social psychology and the matter of recall 15. Social psychology and the manner of recall 16. Conventionalism 17. The notion of a collective unconscious 18. The basis of social recall 19. A summary and some conclusions.

Remembering. A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, Cambridge (University Press) 1964.

Miller (1956) summarized evidence that people can remember about seven chunks in short-term memory (STM) tasks. How- ever, that number was meant more as a rough estimate and a rhetorical device than as a real capacity limit. Others have since suggested that there is a more precise capacity limit, but that it is only three to five chunks. The present target article brings together a wide vari- ety of data on capacity limits suggesting that the smaller capacity limit is real. Capacity limits will be useful in analyses of information processing only if the boundary conditions for observing them can be carefully described. Four basic conditions in which chunks can be identified and capacity limits can accordingly be observed are: (1) when information overload limits chunks to individual stimulus items, (2) when other steps are taken specifically to block the recoding of stimulus items into larger chunks, (3) in performance discontinuities caused by the capacity limit, and (4) in various indirect effects of the capacity limit. Under these conditions, rehearsal and long-term memory cannot be used to combine stimulus items into chunks of an unknown size; nor can storage mechanisms that are not capacity- limited, such as sensory memory, allow the capacity-limited storage mechanism to be refilled during recall. A single, central capacity limit averaging about four chunks is implicated along with other, noncapacity-limited sources. The pure STM capacity limit expressed in chunks is distinguished from compound STM limits obtained when the number of separately held chunks is unclear. Reasons why pure capacity estimates fall within a narrow range are discussed and a capacity limit for the focus of attention is proposed.

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The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity.

Statistical Analysis with Missing Data

This ebook is the first authorized digital version of Kernighan and Ritchie's 1988 classic, The C Programming Language (2nd Ed.). One of the best-selling programming books published in the last fifty years, "K&R" has been called everything from the "bible" to "a landmark in computer science" and it has influenced generations of programmers. Available now for all leading ebook platforms, this concise and beautifully written text is a "must-have" reference for every serious programmers digital library.

As modestly described by the authors in the Preface to the First Edition, this "is not an introductory programming manual; it assumes some familiarity with basic programming concepts like variables, assignment statements, loops, and functions. Nonetheless, a novice programmer should be able to read along and pick up the language, although access to a more knowledgeable colleague will help."

The C programming language

Three-dimensional (3D) displays have become important for many applications including vision research, operation of remote devices, medical imaging, surgical training, scientific visualization, virtual prototyping, and more. In many of these applications, it is important for the graphic image to create a faithful impression of the 3D structure of the portrayed object or scene. Unfortunately, 3D displays often yield distortions in perceived 3D structure compared with the percepts of the real scenes the displays depict. A likely cause of such distortions is the fact that computer displays present images on one surface. Thus, focus cues-accommodation and blur in the retinal image-specify the depth of the display rather than the depths in the depicted scene. Additionally, the uncoupling of vergence and accommodation required by 3D displays frequently reduces one's ability to fuse the binocular stimulus and causes discomfort and fatigue for the viewer. We have developed a novel 3D display that presents focus cues that are correct or nearly correct for the depicted scene. We used this display to evaluate the influence of focus cues on perceptual distortions, fusion failures, and fatigue. We show that when focus cues are correct or nearly correct, (1) the time required to identify a stereoscopic stimulus is reduced, (2) stereoacuity in a time-limited task is increased, (3) distortions in perceived depth are reduced, and (4) viewer fatigue and discomfort are reduced. We discuss the implications of this work for vision research and the design and use of displays.

Vergence-accommodation conflicts hinder visual performance and cause visual fatigue.

Changing goals in mathematics education have encouraged more open-ended problem solving in assessment. However, the use of these less constrained approaches has been limited by a lack of demonstrated relations between the underlying cognitive models and measurement consequences. In order to begin to characterize the cognitive basis for this emerging approach to measurement in a small domain-algebra word problemsdetailed analyses of solutions to 20 problems that had appeared on the Graduate Record Examination General Test were collected from 51 undergraduates. Problems were characterized in terms of their major attributes, and solutions were described by students' strategies and errors. Regression analyses indicated that models including attributes such as the need to apply algebraic concepts, problem complexity, and problem content could account for 37% to 62% of the variance in problem difficulty. Protocol analyses identified four major solution strategies-equation formulation, ratio setup, simulation, a...

https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/3233651

Using Algebra Word Problems to Assess Quantitative Ability: Attributes, Strategies, and Errors

Facilitating Human-Computer Communication

Basic cognitive psychology can provide guidelines for how to design computer systems that are easy for people to use. Prior knowledge of the real world and natural language affect the way people use computers, so computer systems that are consistent with this prior knowledge are easier for people to use. Providing users with mental models for a computer system will allow them to solve more complex problems and understand sequences of commands better. Computer systems should be flexible to accommodate the individual differences between users, but the complexity of understandable computer systems is constrained by the limited information processing capacity of users. The domain of human–computer communication promises to be a fertile domain for applied tests of cognitive theories.

An invited article Facilitating human–computer communication

Two issues concerning the effects of visual pattern goodness on information processing time were investigated: the role of memory vs. encoding and the role of individual stimulus goodness vs. stimulus similarity. A sequential “same-different” task was used to provide differentiation of target item or memory effects from display item or encoding effects. Experiment 1 used four alternative stimuli in each block of trials. The results showed that good patterns were processed faster than poor patterns for both “same” and “different” responses. Furthermore, the goodness of the target item had a greater effect on reaction time than did the goodness of the display item, indicating that memory is more important than encoding in producing faster processing of good stimuli. Effects of interstimulus similarity on processing time were minimal, although isolation of good stimuli in a similarity space could explain many of the results. Experiment 2 replicated the results of Experiment 1, despite the fact that differences in similarity space had been minimized by using only two alternative stimuli in each block. In addition, the speed of processing a “same” pair was essentially independent of the particular alternative stimulus in a block. These results suggest that in this task, there is a processing advantage for good stimuli that is stimulus specific, with the effect operating primarily in memory.

/pdf/stimulus-specific-processing-consequences-of-pattern-4jrp2utdjt.pdf

Stimulus-specific processing consequences of pattern goodness

Expert systems have the potential to help computer-based testing programs give qualitative feedback about examinee performance on constructed-response items. This study evaluated the accuracy of such feedback for algebra word problems. The responses of Graduate Record Examinations examinees were diagnostically analyzed by an expert system and by four human judges. Results showed that human judges agreed highly among themselves about whether errors were present in a solution, to a lesser degree when errors were categorized generally, and to only a limited degree on the detailed characterization of those faults. The expert system agreed very closely with the judges in characterizing responses as right or wrong but somewhat less so on classifying errors using either specific or general schemes. The accuracy of automatic qualitative judgments may be increased by using more general diagnostic categories and by integrating information from other sources, including performance on diverse item types.

Marc M. Sebrechts

Papers

Using Algebra Word Problems to Assess Quantitative Ability: Attributes, Strategies, and Errors

Facilitating Human-Computer Communication

An invited article Facilitating human–computer communication

Stimulus-specific processing consequences of pattern goodness

The Accuracy of Expert-System Diagnoses of Mathematical Problem Solutions