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Introduction 1. Woman's Place in Man's Life Cycle 2. Images of Relationship 3. Concepts of Self and Morality 4. Crisis and Transition 5. Women's Rights and Women's Judgment 6. Visions of Maturity References Index of Study Participants General Index

In a Different Voice. Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, MA (Harvard University Press) 1982.

The emerging field of emotion regulation studies how individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. This review takes an evolutionary perspective and characterizes emotion in terms of response tendencies. Emotion regulation is denned and distinguished from coping, mood regulation, defense, and affect regulation. In the increasingly specialized discipline of psychology, the field of emotion regulation cuts across traditional boundaries and provides common ground. According to a process model of emotion regulation, emotion may be regulated at five points in the emotion generative process: (a) selection of the situation, (b) modification of the situation, (c) deployment of attention, (d) change of cognitions, and (e) modulation of responses. The field of emotion regulation promises new insights into age-old questions about how people manage their emotions.

http://www.elaborer.org/cours/A13/lectures/Gross1998.pdf

The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review.

https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(08)60074-4.pdf

Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth

Numerous studies show that happy individuals are successful across multiple life domains, including marriage, friendship, income, work performance, and health. The authors suggest a conceptual model to account for these findings, arguing that the happiness-success link exists not only because success makes people happy, but also because positive affect engenders success. Three classes of evidence--crosssectional, longitudinal, and experimental--are documented to test their model. Relevant studies are described and their effect sizes combined meta-analytically. The results reveal that happiness is associated with and precedes numerous successful outcomes, as well as behaviors paralleling success. Furthermore, the evidence suggests that positive affect--the hallmark of well-being--may be the cause of many of the desirable characteristics, resources, and successes correlated with happiness. Limitations, empirical issues, and important future research questions are discussed.

/pdf/the-benefits-of-frequent-positive-affect-does-happiness-lead-4k0h6bmoho.pdf

The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?

Social comparison processes include the desire to affiliate with others, the desire for information about others, and explicit self-evaluation against others. Previously these types of comparison activity and their corresponding measures have been treated as interchangeable. We present evidence that in certain groups under threat, these comparison activities diverge, with explicit self-evaluation made against a less fortunate target (downward evaluation), but information and affiliation sought out from more fortunate others (upward contacts). These effects occur because downward evaluation and upward contacts appear to serve different needs, the former ameliorating self-esteem and the latter enabling a person to improve his or her situation and simultaneously increase motivation and hope. Implications for the concept, measurement, and theory of social comparison are discussed. For almost 30 years, social comparison theory has held the dubious distinction of being social psychology's "second favorite theory" (Arrowood, 1978). Nonetheless, as a consequence, it has spawned several hundred empirical investigations (see Suls, 1977, for a review). In recent years, the influence of the theory has extended into clinical and personality psychology, as the importance of social comparisons in coping processes has been identified (Wills, 1981). In part as a result of these extensions to coping, it has become increasingly apparent that social comparisons are not purely social, but can also be cognitively manufactured to meet particular motives or goals (S. E. Taylor, Wood, & Lichtman, 1983). As a result, researchers have become interested in the cognitive underpinnings of social comparisons. With this expanding influence has come the need for theoretical, conceptual, and empirical refinements to the original theory, one of which constitutes the concern of the present article. Festinger's (1954) original conceptualization of comparison activity was relatively broad and included the processes of gathering information from and about other people for the purpose of implicit or explicit self-evaluation. As a consequence, operational definitions adopted by social comparison researchers have been varied and have included choice of others with whom to affiliate, requests for information about others, and more explicit self-evaluations of one's attributes, emotions, opinions, and outcomes in comparison with those of a target. The present analysis suggests that there is now reason to distinguish among

/pdf/social-comparison-activity-under-threat-downward-evaluation-zayu3so2al.pdf

Social comparison activity under threat: Downward evaluation and upward contacts.

This prospective study examined the effects of prenatal social support on maternal and infant health and well-being in a sample of low-income pregnant women (N = 129). Three aspects of support (amount received, quality of support received, and network resources) and four outcomes (birth weight, Apgar scores, labor progress, and postpartum depression) were studied. Results indicated that women who received more support had better labor progress and babies with higher Apgar scores. Women with higher quality support had babies with higher Apgar scores and experienced less postpartum depression. Also, women with larger networks had babies of higher birth weight. Further analyses indicated that the outcomes as a whole were more consistently predicted by instrumental rather than emotional forms of support. Finally, although there was some evidence for stress-buffering effects of support, the overall findings were more consistent with a main effect model.

https://labs.psych.ucsb.edu/collins/nancy/UCSB_Close_Relationships_Lab/Publications_files/Collins%20et%20al.,%201993.pdf

Social Support in Pregnancy: Psychosocial Correlates of Birth Outcomes and Postpartum Depression

Objective: Stress in pregnancy predicts earlier birth and lower birth weight. The authors investigated whether pregnancy-specific stress contributes uniquely to birth outcomes compared with general stress, and whether prenatal health behaviors explain this association. Design: Three structured prenatal interviews (N 279) assessing state anxiety, perceived stress, life events, pregnancy-specific stress, and health behaviors. Main Outcome Measures: Gestational age at delivery, birth weight, preterm delivery (37 weeks), and low birth weight (2,500 g). Results: A latent pregnancy-specific stress factor predicted birth outcomes better than latent factors representing state anxiety, perceived stress, or life event stress, and than a latent factor constructed from all stress measures. Controlling for obstetric risk, pregnancy-specific stress was associated with smoking, caffeine consumption, and unhealthy eating, and inversely associated with healthy eating, vitamin use, exercise, and gestational age at delivery. Cigarette smoking predicted lower birth weight. Clinically-defined birth outcomes were predicted by cigarette smoking and pregnancy-specific stress. Conclusion: Pregnancy-specific stress contributed directly to preterm delivery and indirectly to low birth weight through its association with smoking. Pregnancyspecific stress may be a more powerful contributor to birth outcomes than general stress.

Pregnancy-specific stress, prenatal health behaviors, and birth outcomes.

Developed and tested a biopsychosocial model of birthweight and gestational age at delivery using structural equation modeling procedures. The model tested the effects of medical risk and prenatal stress on these indicators of prematurity after controlling for whether a woman had ever given birth (parity). Subjects were 130 women of low socioeconomic status interviewed throughout pregnancy in conjunction with prenatal care visits to a public clinic. The majority of women were Latino or African-American. Half were interviewed in Spanish. Lower birthweight was predicted by earlier delivery and by prenatal stress. Earlier delivery was predicted by medical risk and by prenatal stress. Parity was not related to time of delivery or to birthweight. Implications of results for the development of biopsychosocial research on pregnancy and on stress are discussed.

Prenatal maternal stress and prematurity: a prospective study of socioeconomically disadvantaged women.

Compared with European Americans, African American infants experience disproportionately high rates of low birth weight and preterm delivery and are more than twice as likely to die during their 1st year of life. The authors examine 5 explanations for these differences in rates of adverse birth outcomes: (a) ethnic differences in health behaviors and socioeconomic status; (b) higher levels of stress in African American women; (c) greater susceptibility to stress in African Americans; (d) the impact of racism acting either as a contributor to stress or as a factor that exacerbates stress effects; and (e) ethnic differences in stress-related neuroendocrine, vascular, and immunological processes. The review of literature indicates that each explanation has some merit, although none is sufficient to explain ethnic disparities in adverse birth outcomes. There is a lack of studies examining the impact of such factors jointly and interactively. Recommendations and cautions for future research are offered.

Explaining Disproportionately High Rates of Adverse Birth Outcomes among African Americans: The Impact of Stress, Racism, and Related Factors in Pregnancy.

Marci Lobel

Papers

Social comparison activity under threat: Downward evaluation and upward contacts.

Social Support in Pregnancy: Psychosocial Correlates of Birth Outcomes and Postpartum Depression

Pregnancy-specific stress, prenatal health behaviors, and birth outcomes.

Prenatal maternal stress and prematurity: a prospective study of socioeconomically disadvantaged women.

Explaining Disproportionately High Rates of Adverse Birth Outcomes among African Americans: The Impact of Stress, Racism, and Related Factors in Pregnancy.