A framework for conceptualizing the development of individual differences in reading ability is presented that synthesizes a great deal of the research literature. The framework places special emph...

Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy.

To clarify the role of decoding in reading and reading disability, a simple model of reading is proposed, which holds that reading equals the product of decoding and comprehension. It follows that there must be three types of reading disability, resulting from an inability to decode, an inability to comprehend, or both. It is argued that the first is dyslexia, the second hyperlexia, and the third common, or garden variety, reading disability.

Decoding, Reading, and Reading Disability

A connectionist approach to processing in quasi-regular domains, as exemplified by English word reading, is developed. Networks using appropriately structured orthographic and phonological representations were trained to read both regular and exception words, and yet were also able to read pronounceable nonwords as well as skilled readers. A mathematical analysis of a simplified system clarifies the close relationship of word frequency and spelling-sound consistency in influencing naming latencies. These insights were verified in subsequent simulations, including an attractor network that accounted for latency data directly in its time to settle on a response. Further analyses of the ability of networks to reproduce data on acquired surface dyslexia support a view of the reading system that incorporates a graded division of labor between semantic and phonological processes, and contrasts in important ways with the standard dual-route account.

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Understanding normal and impaired word reading: computational principles in quasi-regular domains.

The development of reading depends on phonological awareness across all languages so far studied. Languages vary in the consistency with which phonology is represented in orthography. This results in developmental differences in the grain size of lexical representations and accompanying differences in developmental reading strategies and the manifestation of dyslexia across orthographies. Differences in lexical representations and reading across languages leave developmental “footprints” in the adult lexicon. The lexical organization and processing strategies that are characteristic of skilled reading in different orthographies are affected by different developmental constraints in different writing systems. The authors develop a novel theoretical framework to explain these cross-language data, which they label a psycholinguistic grain size theory of reading and its development.

Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: a psycholinguistic grain size theory.

We summarize some of the most important findings from research evaluating the hypothesized causes of specific reading disability (dyslexia) over the past four decades. After outlining components of reading ability, we discuss manifest causes of reading difficulties, in terms of deficiencies in component reading skills that might lead to such difficulties. The evidence suggests that inadequate facility in word identification due, in most cases, to more basic deficits in alphabetic coding is the basic cause of difficulties in learning to read. We next discuss hypothesized deficiencies in readingrelated cognitive abilities as underlying causes of deficiencies in component reading skills. The evidence in these areas suggests that, in most cases, phonological skills deficiencies associated with phonological coding deficits are the probable causes of the disorder rather than visual, semantic, or syntactic deficits, although reading difficulties in some children may be associated with general language deficits. Hypothesized deficits in general learning abilities (e.g., attention, association learning, cross-modal transfer etc.) and low-level sensory deficits have weak validity as causal factors in specific reading disability. These inferences are, by and large, supported by research evaluating the biological foundations of dyslexia. Finally, evidence is presented in support of the idea that many poor readers are impaired because of inadequate instruction or other experiential factors. This does not mean that biological factors are not relevant, because the brain and environment interact to produce the neural networks that support reading acquisition. We conclude with a discussion of the clinical implications of the research findings, focusing on the need for enhanced instruction.

http://www.dr-hatfield.com/educ538/docs/Vellutino,+etal+2004.pdf

Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades?

Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment (SLI) were for many years treated as distinct disorders but are now often regarded as different manifestations of the same underlying problem, differing only in severity or developmental stage. The merging of these categories has been motivated by the reconceptualization of dyslexia as a language disorder in which phonological processing is deficient. The authors argue that this focus underestimates the independent influence of semantic and syntactic deficits, which are widespread in SLI and which affect reading comprehension and impair attainment of fluent reading in adolescence. The authors suggest that 2 dimensions of impairment are needed to conceptualize the relationship between these disorders and to capture phenotypic features that are important for identifying neurobiologically and etiologically coherent subgroups.

/pdf/developmental-dyslexia-and-specific-language-impairment-same-3mkl221ou7.pdf

Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment: same or different?

The authors present the results of a 2-year longitudinal study of 90 British children beginning at school entry when they were 4 years 9 months old (range = 4 years 2 months to 5 years 2 months). The relationships among early phonological skills, letter knowledge, grammatical skills, and vocabulary knowledge were investigated as predictors of word recognition and reading comprehension. Word recognition skills were consistently predicted by earlier measures of letter knowledge and phoneme sensitivity (but not by vocabulary knowledge, rhyme skills, or grammatical skills). In contrast, reading comprehension was predicted by prior word recognition skills, vocabulary knowledge, and grammatical skills. The results are related to current theories about the role of phonological, grammatical, and vocabulary skills in the development of early reading skills.

Phonemes, rimes, vocabulary, and grammatical skills as foundations of early reading development: evidence from a longitudinal study.

List of Contributors. Preface. Acknowledgments. Part I: Word Recognition Processes in Reading:. Editorial Part I. 1. Modelling Reading: The Dual-Route Approach: Max Coltheart (Macquarie University, Australia). 2. Connectionist Approaches to Reading: David C. Plaut (Carnegie Mellon University). 3. Visual Word Recognition: Theories and Findings: Stephen J. Lupker (University of Western Ontario). 4. The Question of Phonology and Reading: Guy C. Van Orden and Heidi Kloos (Arizona State University). 5. Eye Movements During Reading: Keith Rayner, Barbara J. Juhasz, and Alexander Pollatsek (University of Massachusetts). Part II: Learning to Read and Spell:. Editorial Part II. 6. Theories of Learning to Read: Brian Byrne (University of New England, Australia). 7. Writing Systems and Spelling Development: Rebecca Treiman and Brett Kessler (Washington University in St Louis). 8. Development of Sight Word Reading: Phases and Findings: Linnea C. Ehri (Graduate Center of the City University of New York). 9. Predicting Individual Differences in Learning to Read: Judith A. Bowey (University of Queensland). 10. Social Correlates of Emergent Literacy: Beth M. Phillips and Christopher J. Lonigan (Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida State University). 11. Literacy and Cognitive Change: Jose Morais and Regine Kolinsk (Universite Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium). Part III: Reading Comprehension:. Editorial Part III. 12. Comprehension: Walter Kintsch and Katherine A. Rawson (University of Colorado). 13. The Acquisition of Reading Comprehension Skill: Charles A. Perfetti, Nicole Landi and Jane Oakhill (University of Pittsburgh). 14. Children's Reading Comprehension Difficulties: Kate A. Nation (University of Oxford). Part IV: Reading in Different Languages:. Editorial Part IV. 15. Orthographic Systems and Skilled Word Recognition Processes in Reading: Ram Frost (The Hebrew University, Israel). 16. Early Reading Development in European Orthographies: Philip H. K. Seymour (University of Dundee, UK). 17. Learning to Read in Chinese: J. Richard Hanley (University of Essex, UK). 18. The Nature and Causes of Dyslexia in Different Languages: Marketa Caravolas (University of Liverpool). Part V: Disorders of Reading and Spelling:. Editorial Part V. 19. Developmental Dyslexia: Frank R. Vellutino and Jack M. Fletcher (State University of New York, at Albany). 20. Learning to Read with a Hearing Impairment: Jacqueline Leybaert (Universite Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium). 21. Learning to Read with a Language Impairment: Margaret J. Snowling and Charles Hulme (University of York, UK). 22. Acquired Disorders of Reading: Matthew A. Lambon Ralph (University of Manchester) and Karalyn Patterson (University of Cambridge). 23. Spelling Disorders: Cristina Romani (University of Aston, UK), Andrew Olson (University of Birmingham, UK), and Anna Maria DiBetta (University of Aston). Part VI: Biological Bases of Reading:. Editorial Part VI. 24. Genetics of Dyslexia: Bruce F. Pennington (University of Denver) and Richard K. Olson (University of Colorado). 25. Functional Brain Imaging Studies of Skilled Reading and Developmental Dyslexia: Cathy J. Price (University College London) and Eamon McCrory (Institute of Psychiatry, UK). Part VII: Teaching Reading:. Editorial Part VII. 26. Teaching Children to Read: What Do We Know About How To Do It?: Catherine E. Snow (Harvard Graduate School of Education) and Connie Juel (Stanford University). 27. Recent Discoveries from Research on Remedial Interventions for Children with Dyslexia: Joseph K. Torgesen (Florida Center for Reading Research at Florida State University). Glossary of Terms. References. Author Index. Subject Index

http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/toc/z2008_66.pdf

Margaret J. Snowling

Papers

Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades?

Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment: same or different?

Phonemes, rimes, vocabulary, and grammatical skills as foundations of early reading development: evidence from a longitudinal study.

The science of reading: A handbook.

The Nonword Reading Deficit in Developmental Dyslexia: A Review.