Theories about reading have neglected basic differences in the developmental trajectories of skills related to reading. This essay proposes that some reading skills, such as learning the letters of the alphabet, are constrained to small sets of knowledge that are mastered in relatively brief periods of development. In contrast, other skills, such as vocabulary, are unconstrained by the knowledge to be acquired or the duration of learning. The conceptual, developmental, and methodological constraints on different reading skills are described in this essay that identifies various types of constraints on reading constructs and measures. Examples of reading research and assessment are discussed to illustrate (a) how the constraints can help to explain transitory correlational patterns among reading data, (b) how proxy effects surrounding constrained skills influence interpretations of reading development, (c) how prescriptions to teach constrained skills are causal misinterpretations of longitudinal correlations, and (d) why interventions on constrained skills usually lead only to temporary gains on skills aligned with the constrained skill. Because constrained skills are not normally distributed conceptually or empirically, except on special occasions, analyses based on parametric statistics are inappropriate. This essay describes implications for theories of reading development, research methods, and educational policies; the “extra” commentary linked to the online version of the article expands on this latter theme.

Las teorias acerca de la lectura han descuidado diferencias basicas en el camino evolutivo de las habilidades relacionadas con la lectura. Este ensayo propone que ciertas habilidades de lectura, como el aprendizaje de las letras del alfabeto, estan restringidas a pequenos conjuntos de conocimientos cuyo dominio se concreta en periodos relativamente breves. En contraste, otras habilidades tales como el vocabulario, no estan restringidas por el conocimiento que se adquirira ni por la duracion del aprendizaje. En este ensayo se describen las restricciones conceptuales, evolutivas y metodologicas en diferentes habilidades de lectura; el mismo identifica varios tipos de restricciones en las conceptualizaciones sobre la lectura y en las medidas de lectura. Se discuten ejemplos de investigacion y evaluacion en lectura para ilustrar: a) de que modo las restricciones pueden ayudar a explicar patrones correlacionales transitorios entre los datos de lectura, b) como efectos secundarios proximos a las habilidades restringidas influencian las interpretaciones del desarrollo en lectura, c) como ciertas propuestas para ensenar habilidades restringidas son malas interpretaciones causales de correlaciones longitudinales y d) por que las intervenciones sobre las habilidades restringidas generalmente conducen solo a logros temporarios en habilidades afines a la habilidad restringida. Debido a que las habilidades restringidas, excepto en ocasiones especiales, no estan normalmente distribuidas conceptual o empiricamente, son inapropiados los analisis basados en la estadistica parametrica. El ensayo describe implicancias para las teorias del desarrollo lector, los metodos de investigacion y las politicas educativas.

Theorien ubers Lesen haben die grundsatzlichen Unterschiede in den aufs Lesen bezogenen sich entwickelnden Leistungsbahnen vernachlassigt. Dieser Aufsatz vertritt die Ansicht, das einige Leseleistungen, wie beispielsweise das Erlernen der Buchstaben des Alphabets, auf eng begrenzte Erkenntniswerte beschrankt sind, die in relativ kurzen Entwicklungsperioden beherrscht werden. Im Gegensatz dazu sind andere Kenntnisse, wie das Vokabular, unbegrenzt im zu erlernenden Wissen oder in der Dauer beim Lernen. Die konzeptualen, entwicklungsbedingten und methodologischen Beschrankungen auf unterschiedliche Leseleistungen werden in diesem Aufsatz beschrieben, welcher verschiedene Typen von Einschrankungen im Lesen von Wortfugungen und Abschatzungen identifiziert. Beispiele aus der Leseforschung und Bewertung werden diskutiert, um zu illustrieren, (a) wie die Einschrankungen dazu verhelfen konnen, transitorische Korrelationsmuster zwischen den Lesedaten zu erklaren, (b) wie Vertretungsfunktionen umgebende Auswertungen von Leistungseinwirkungen der Leseentwicklung beeinflust, (c) wie Verordnungen zum Unterrichten eingegrenzter Kenntnisse kausale Fehlinterpretationen der Langenkorrelationen sind, und (d) warum Interventionen bei eingegrenzten Kenntnissen meistens nur zu zeitweisen Fortschritten der angeglichenen Leistungen eingeschrankter Fahigkeiten fuhren. Da eingeschrankte Befahigungen normalerweise nicht konzeptionell oder empirisch eingeteilt sind, auser bei speziellen Anlassen, sind die auf parametrische Statistiken basierte Analysen ungeeignet. Dieser Aufsatz beschreibt Implikationen fur Theorien zur Leseentwicklung, Forschungsmethoden und Unterrichtsverfahren.

Les theories de la lecture ont neglige des differences de base dans les trajectoires du developpement des competences relatives a la lecture. Cet essai enonce que certaines competences de lecture telles que les lettres de l'alphabet se reduisent a de petits ensembles de connaissances qui sont maitrisees au cours de periodes de developpement relativement breves. Par contre, d'autres competences telles que le vocabulaire ne sont pas limitees par les connaissances a acquerir ou par la duree de l'apprentissage. On decrit dans cet essai, qui identifie differents types de contraintes sur les constructs et les evaluations de la lecture, les contraintes conceptuelles, developpementales, et methodologiques de differentes competences de lecture. On discute des exemples de recherche et d'evaluation de la lecture afin de montrer a) comment les contraintes peuvent aider a expliquer certains patrons provisoires de correlations entre resultats de lecture, b) comment des effets voisins qui se trouvent autour des competences reduites jouent un role sur les interpretations du developpement de la lecture, c) comment les prescriptions d'enseignement de competences reduites sont responsables d'erreurs d'interpretation des correlations longitudinales, et d) pourquoi des interventions sur des competences reduites ne conduisent en general qu'a des gains temporaires sur des competences liees a celles-ci. Du fait que, sauf en de rares occasions, les competences reduites ne sont pas distribuees normalement, tant conceptuellement qu'empiriquement, les analyses reposant sur des statistiques parametriques sont inappropriees. Cet essai enonce enfin des implications sur les theories du developpement de la lecture, les methodes de recherche, et les politiques educatives.

Reinterpreting the development of reading skills

A significant proportion of American high school students struggle with reading comprehension Theoretical models of reading comprehension might help researchers understand these difficulties, because they can point to variables that make the largest contributions to comprehension On the basis of an extensive review of the literature, we created a new model of reading comprehension, the direct and inferential mediation (DIME) model The model hypothesizes relationships among background knowledge, inferences, reading comprehension strategies, vocabulary, and word reading and addresses the direct and mediated effects of these 5 predictors on comprehension The authors tested the fit of the model and 3 variations of the model to data from 175 students in 9th grade The DIME model explained 66% of the variance in comprehension Vocabulary and background knowledge made the largest contributions to comprehension, followed by inference, word reading, and strategies Analyses of participants scoring below the 30th percentile on comprehension showed these students to have low scores on all of the measures The authors suggest that vocabulary and background knowledge interventions might be the best way to begin improving the academic reading comprehension of students like those in the sample

Testing and refining the direct and inferential mediation model of reading comprehension

/pdf/reinterpreting-the-development-of-reading-skills-wv2ua1mou5.pdf

Mixed methods research.

/pdf/improving-adolescent-literacy-effective-classroom-and-3hjd34do64.pdf

Improving Adolescent Literacy: Effective Classroom and Intervention Practices. IES Practice Guide. NCEE 2008-4027.

State and school districts are looking for policies they believe will improve student performance. As a result, assessments have proliferated, stakes have increased, and specific curriculum and instructional approaches are being mandated. In this study, we probed beneath students' failing scores on a state reading assessment to investigate the needs of struggling students and implications for policy. We found that scores on state tests mask distinctive and multifaceted patterns of students' reading abilities that require dramatically different instructional emphases. We explore the implications of this complexity for state and local reform efforts that target improved teaching and learning.

Below the Bar: Profiles of Students who Fail State Reading Assessments:

Each year, thousand of children take state and standardised reading tests, and each year thousands fail them. In this article, we draw on the results of an empirical study of students who failed these tests to describe six different profiles of struggling students and their unique reading strengths and needs. We explore the instructional strategies that teachers might use to help these students succeed, and several classroom and school strategies that could enhance appropriate instruction.

Behind Test Scores: What Struggling Readers REALLY Need

When we began this column two years ago, the idea of literacy coaching was just beginning to [EDITOR’S NOTE: At the NCTE Annual Convention in 2003, I noted that more teachers were asking each other for specific information about literacy coaches. I talked with Kathy Egawa, then an associate executive director for NCTE (and the person who could always most easily answer any question I had about teaching in the middle school) if she’d be interested in writing a column for VM about literacy coaching. She said yes and then added that she wanted three outstanding teachers/coaches writing it with her: Marsha, Tracy, and LeAnne. Their column, the Coaches’ Corner, began appearing exactly at the time that more teachers and administrators were questioning how to use literacy coaches in middle schools. While I wish they had been writing for VM longer, the reality is they appeared at exactly the right time. They close their column with this article that provides solid direction about literacy coaching.]

Literacy Coaching: Coming Out of the Corner

The degree to which we don't understand the culture of others is the degree to which we're culturally impoverished.--Jonathon Kozol, 9/29/2005 The public school system has undergone dramatic changes within the last ten years. We have moved toward a standards-based system, implemented statewide assessments and have increased accountability for both students and educators. Inherent in all reform initiatives has been the effort to increase success for all students, including those with disabilities, in the general education setting and the general education curriculum (Nolet & McLaughlin, 2002). The increase in such inclusionary practices has increased the need for collaboration between the multiple players in the public school system. This has created challenges for both general education and special education teachers and teacher educators who have historically worked as separate entities and who may operate from very different paradigms and belief systems. No longer are special education teachers able to primarily provide one-on-one instruction in pullout settings; instead, they are expected to work in the "least restrictive environment" possible, often within a general education classroom. At the same time general education teachers are not able to assume that the responsibility for the education of students with special needs lies with someone else. The roles of teachers have changed and schools and school systems are being held to higher standards of accountability than ever before. At the same time current and historical service delivery models of both general education and special education have are not always effective (Denton, Vaughn, & Fletcher, 2003). An evolution in education is occurring and professionals in both areas find that they must work together; they must collaborate to meet the needs of all students. Traditionally a separate culture exists between special education and general education. The two fields have viewed the world of education from different theoretical perspectives that in part stems from different legislative and experiential backgrounds. As Kozol (opening quote) comments about culture, the degree to which we don't understand the paradigms of others leaves us impoverished and unable to work collaboratively to best instruct students. When we lack shared experiences and perspectives, we have two choices--we can haplessly dismiss the perspective or paradigm of the other or we can decide to learn about another's perspective, attempt to understand what a person's beliefs are, and where the beliefs stem from. From this point, we can then establish a mutual goal of working collaboratively to improve the instruction of all students. "Collaboration" is included in many vision and mission statements and educators are expected to collaborate with each other, with administrators, and with parents. The word is often used generically, implying that collaboration happens when individuals are working together. This broad use of the term easily gives the impression that collaboration is an easy and natural process, when the opposite is true (Friend, 2000). Collaboration, as a successful process, takes effort, diligence, and training. It is not simply working together, liking each other, or spending time engaged in a joint activity. Instead, collaboration has been defined as an interactive process that enables people with diverse expertise to generate creative solutions to mutually defined problems (Idol, Nevin, & Paulocci-Whitcomb, 2000). Friend and Cook (1996) identify several specific facets of successful collaboration including the following: parity, mutual goals, shared responsibility in decision-making, shared resources and accountability, and valuing of personal interactions. Skills for effective collaboration, especially among general education and special education teachers, are most readily learned through modeling (Hoffman & Jenkins, 2002). The most powerful and influential opportunity for teacher modeling occurs during initial teacher preparation programs (Villa, Thousand, Nevin, & Malgeri, 1996). …

/pdf/breaking-the-language-barrier-promoting-collaboration-3049bny5cd.pdf

Breaking the Language Barrier: Promoting Collaboration between General and Special Educators

Amaya Garcia is deputy director for English learner education with the Education Policy Program at New America, Washington, D.C. Alexandra Manuel is executive director of the State of Washington Professional Educator Standards Board, Olympia, Washington. Marsha Riddle Buly is a professor in the Woodring College of Education at Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington. Email addresses are: garciaa@newamerica.org, alexandra.manuel@k12.wa.us, & marsha. riddlebuly@wwu.edu © 2019 by Caddo Gap Press Abstract

/pdf/washington-state-policy-spotlight-a-multifaceted-approach-to-43if01dvvl.pdf

Marsha Riddle Buly

Papers

Below the Bar: Profiles of Students who Fail State Reading Assessments:

Behind Test Scores: What Struggling Readers REALLY Need

Literacy Coaching: Coming Out of the Corner

Breaking the Language Barrier: Promoting Collaboration between General and Special Educators

Washington State Policy Spotlight: A Multifaceted Approach to Grow Your Own Pathways.