A general inductive approach for analysis of qualitative evaluation data is described. The purposes for using an inductive approach are to (a) condense raw textual data into a brief, summary format; (b) establish clear links between the evaluation or research objectives and the summary findings derived from the raw data; and (c) develop a framework of the underlying structure of expe- riences or processes that are evident in the raw data. The general inductive approach provides an easily used and systematic set of procedures for analyzing qualitative data that can produce reliable and valid findings. Although the general inductive approach is not as strong as some other analytic strategies for theory or model development, it does provide a simple, straightforward approach for deriving findings in the context of focused evaluation questions. Many evaluators are likely to find using a general inductive approach less complicated than using other approaches to qualitative data analysis.

/pdf/a-general-inductive-approach-for-analyzing-qualitative-1xoxxy6mp5.pdf

A General Inductive Approach for Analyzing Qualitative Evaluation Data

The probability sampling techniques used for quantitative studies are rarely appropriate when conducting qualitative research. This article considers and explains the differences between the two approaches and describes three broad categories of naturalistic sampling: convenience, judgement and theoretical models. The principles are illustrated with practical examples from the author's own research.

/pdf/sampling-for-qualitative-research-7zlifemvjb.pdf

Sampling for qualitative research

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/pdf/acc-aha-2005-guideline-update-for-the-diagnosis-and-4hik65ngbe.pdf

ACC/AHA 2005 Guideline Update for the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult

ACC/AHA 2005 guideline update for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure).

Sample sizes must be ascertained in qualitative studies like in quantitative studies but not by the same means. The prevailing concept for sample size in qualitative studies is "saturation." Saturation is closely tied to a specific methodology, and the term is inconsistently applied. We propose the concept "information power" to guide adequate sample size for qualitative studies. Information power indicates that the more information the sample holds, relevant for the actual study, the lower amount of participants is needed. We suggest that the size of a sample with sufficient information power depends on (a) the aim of the study, (b) sample specificity, (c) use of established theory, (d) quality of dialogue, and (e) analysis strategy. We present a model where these elements of information and their relevant dimensions are related to information power. Application of this model in the planning and during data collection of a qualitative study is discussed.

Sample Size in Qualitative Interview Studies: Guided by Information Power

ContextInformation about the performance of hospitals, health professionals,
and health care organizations has been made public in the United States for
more than a decade. The expected gains of public disclosure have not been
made clear, and both the benefits and potential risks have received minimal
empirical investigation.ObjectiveTo summarize the empirical evidence concerning public disclosure of
performance data, relate the results to the potential gains, and identify
areas requiring further research.Data SourcesA literature search was conducted on MEDLINE and EMBASE databases for
articles published between January 1986 and October 1999 in peer-reviewed
journals. Review of citations, public documents, and expert advice was conducted
to identify studies not found in the electronic databases.Study SelectionDescriptive, observational, or experimental evaluations of US reporting
systems were selected for inclusion.Data ExtractionIncluded studies were organized based on use of public data by consumers,
purchasers, physicians, and hospitals; impact on quality of care outcomes;
and costs.Data SynthesisSeven US reporting systems have been the subject of published empirical
evaluations. Descriptive and observational methods predominate. Consumers
and purchasers rarely search out the information and do not understand or
trust it; it has a small, although increasing, impact on their decision making.
Physicians are skeptical about such data and only a small proportion makes
use of it. Hospitals appear to be most responsive to the data. In a limited
number of studies, the publication of performance data has been associated
with an improvement in health outcomes.ConclusionsThere are several potential gains from the public disclosure of performance
data, but use of the information by provider organizations for quality improvement
may be the most productive area for further research.

The public release of performance data: what do we expect to gain? A review of the evidence.

Background and objective This article considers the role of the key informant technique as a qualitative research method and examines the potential contribution of the approach to health care research. Method The principles underlying the technique and the advantages and disadvantages are considered, illustrated with examples from a range of social science studies. Results and conclusion An example of the author's own use of key informants in a study of the professional relationship between general practitioners and specialists is described.

The key informant technique

Objectives: To identify and assess the barriers that health authorities face as they manage quality improvements in general practice in the context of the NHS reforms. Design: Qualitative case study. Setting: Three UK health authorities: a rural health authority in the south west, a deprived inner city health authority in the north east, and an affluent suburban health authority in the south east. Participants: Senior and junior managers. Main outcome measures: Structure of strategic and organisational management, and barriers to the leadership and management of quality improvement in general practice. Results: Seven barriers were identified: absence of an explicit strategic plan for general practice, competing priorities for attention of the health authority, sensitivity of health professionals, lack of information due to poor quality of clinical data, lack of authority to implement change, unclear roles and responsibilities of managers within the organisations, and isolation from other authorities or organisations facing similar challenges. Conclusions: The health authorities faced significant barriers that would impede their ability to fulfil their responsibilities in the new NHS and that would reduce their capacity to contribute to quality improvements in general practice. Key messages Health authorities fail to take a strategic approach to improving quality in general practice Doctors and health authority managers do not work sufficiently closely together to improve the quality of general practice Health authority managers seem to lack the authority and organisational structure to maximise the role in general practice expected of them in the NHS reforms

https://www.bmj.com/content/bmj/319/7203/164.full.pdf

Improving quality in general practice: qualitative case study of barriers faced by health authorities.

Despite interest in preventing pregnancy among teenagers little is known about the most effective strategies.1 An effective way of preventing pregnancy is to use emergency contraception after unprotected intercourse. We report a descriptive study of pregnant teenagers in Devon that examined awareness and use of emergency contraception and its potential for preventing unwanted teenage pregnancy.

With approval of the ethics committee pregnant teenagers were recruited consecutively after local start dates. All those approached agreed to interview, though hospital staff refused access to five patients having a termination. The interviews were conducted between August 1992 and January 1994.

A total of 167 pregnant teenagers (aged 13-19 years) were interviewed. Ninety five (57%) were attending for an NHS termination (8-12 weeks pregnant) and 72 (43%) were attending booking appointments at hospital antenatal clinics (16-17 weeks pregnant). Twenty (12%) pregnancies were planned, 122 (73%) were definitely unplanned (86 …

Martin N. Marshall

Papers

Sampling for qualitative research

The public release of performance data: what do we expect to gain? A review of the evidence.

The key informant technique

Improving quality in general practice: qualitative case study of barriers faced by health authorities.

Pregnant teenagers' knowledge and use of emergency contraception