This article reviews the recent trends, developments, and future applications of bio-based polymers produced from renewable resources. Bio-based polymers are attracting increased attention due to environmental concerns and the realization that global petroleum resources are finite. Bio-based polymers not only replace existing polymers in a number of applications but also provide new combinations of properties for new applications. A range of bio-based polymers are presented in this review, focusing on general methods of production, properties, and commercial applications. The review examines the technological and future challenges discussed in bringing these materials to a wide range of applications, together with potential solutions, as well as discusses the major industry players who are bringing these materials to the market.

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Current progress on bio-based polymers and their future trends

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica

There has been a great interest in application of nanoparticles as biomaterials for delivery of therapeutic molecules such as drugs and genes, and for tissue engineering. In particular, biopolymers are suitable materials as nanoparticles for clinical application due to their versatile traits, including biocompatibility, biodegradability and low immunogenicity. Biopolymers are polymers that are produced from living organisms, which are classified in three groups: polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids. It is important to control particle size, charge, morphology of surface and release rate of loaded molecules to use biopolymer-based nanoparticles as drug/gene delivery carriers. To obtain a nano-carrier for therapeutic purposes, a variety of materials and preparation process has been attempted. This review focuses on fabrication of biocompatible nanoparticles consisting of biopolymers such as protein (silk, collagen, gelatin, β-casein, zein and albumin), protein-mimicked polypeptides and polysaccharides (chitosan, alginate, pullulan, starch and heparin). The effects of the nature of the materials and the fabrication process on the characteristics of the nanoparticles are described. In addition, their application as delivery carriers of therapeutic drugs and genes and biomaterials for tissue engineering are also reviewed.

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/14/1/1629/pdf

Biopolymer-based nanoparticles for drug/gene delivery and tissue engineering.

Natural Science Foundation of China[30000213, 30370160, 30670214]; National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program)[2009CB522300]; Chinese Academy of Sciences

Meliaceous limonoids: chemistry and biological activities.

A review of the chemical modification techniques of starch.

Recent applications of starch derivatives in nanodrug delivery

Nanoscience has been variously defined at different fora, books, journals and the web, yet one thing is common; it involves the study of the control of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. This molecular level investigation is at a range usually below 100 nm. In simple terms, a nanometer is one billionth of a meter and the properties of materials at this atomic or subatomic level differ significantly from properties of the same materials at larger sizes. Although, the initial properties of nanomaterials studied were for its physical, mechanical, electrical, magnetic, chemical and biological applications, recently, attention has been geared towards its pharmaceutical application, especially in the area of drug delivery.

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Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery

The purpose of this study was to isolate starch from the tubers of Cyperus esculentus L. and evaluate its physicochemical and binder properties. Extraction of starch using sodium metabisulfite yielded 37 g of starch per 100 g of the tubers. Scanning electron microscopy indicated that Cyperus starch consists of oval to elliptical particles with a smooth surface. Cyperus starch demonstrates a narrow particle size distribution with a mean of 8.25 μm. Cyperus starch conforms well to United States Pharmacopeia standards established for widely used starches like maize and potato. The X-ray powder diffraction pattern and moisture sorption profile of Cyperus starch were comparable to that of maize starch. Cyperus starch had lower swelling power than maize and potato starch, indicative of stronger associative forces within the granules. Carr’s index and Hausner ratio indicate that Cyperus starch should have comparable flow properties with respect to maize and potato starch. Cyperus starch was employed as binder for the formulation of metronidazole tablets. Formulations containing 5%, 7.5%, and 10% Cyperus starch were compared with those containing 10% potato starch. At 10% binder concentration, the tablets containing Cyperus starch exhibited better hardness and negligible friability as compared with those with potato starch. Although the binder concentration had a significant effect on the disintegration time of the tablets, it did not seem to affect the dissolution profile. These results indicate that Cyperus starch provides excellent binding properties without compromising drug release characteristics and should be explored in pharmaceutical formulations.

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Physicochemical and Binder Properties of Starch Obtained from Cyperus esculentus

The purpose of this study was to elucidate functional properties of starch granules obtained from tubers of Tacca leontopetaloides and compare them to a commercially available maize starch. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), particle size analysis, X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), gravimetric moisture sorption, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were used to characterize the samples. Tacca starch exhibited a monomodal distribution of irregularly shaped granules with a mean particle size of 2.64 μm. The spherulites of both samples indicated an A-type pattern, with the degree of crystallinity estimated to be 35% for tacca starch and 38% for maize starch. The moisture sorption profile of both samples was analyzed according to the Guggenheim, Anderson and de Boer (GAB) equation. GAB analysis estimated the monolayer coverage for tacca and maize starch to be 0.0928 g/g and 0.0856 g/g, respectively. The gelatinization parameters of tacca starch were found to be 65.57 - 68.56 - 73.10°C while that of maize starch were 67.30 - 70.97 - 76.25°C. The results of DSC studies indicate that the associative forces that stabilize the granule structure in tacca starch are weaker than those in maize starch. The results obtained in this study establish the fundamental characteristics of tacca starch and suggest that further exploration of its potential for use in a variety of fields is warranted.

Physical, Thermal and Sorption Profile of Starch Obtained from Tacca leontopetaloides

Natural biopolymers such as starch, chitosan and gelatin have found use in industries as diverse as food, textiles, cosmetics, plastics, adhesives, paper, and pharmaceuticals. The food industry uses these polymers as a thickening agent in snacks, meat products, fruit juices. They are also used in the manufacture of disposable items like fast food utensils and containers. From a pharmaceutical standpoint, these polymers have been extensively used in solidoral dosage forms, where they have been used as binders, diluents, disintegrant and matrixing agents. In recent times, nanotechnology has started to make significant advances in biomedical applications, including newer drug delivery techniques. There has therefore been considerable research into developing biocompatible, biodegradable submicron devices as drug delivery systems using natural polymers, this is because, they occur widely in nature, generally biocompatible, biodegradable, safe and non-immunogenic. There are reports of these polymers been made into colloidal particles that act as carriers for both large and small drug molecules, conferring on the drug molecules properties which enhance delivery actively or passively, thereby tuning them for use as controlled, ocular, transdermal or intranasal delivery systems. In more advanced areas of drug delivery, these polymers have also been tested for gene therapy and tissue engineering. This review examines the properties and recent applications of three (3) natural polymers; starch, chitosan and gelatin in nano-drug delivery. Journal of Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology J o u r n a l o f N an om edicine & Natechn o l o g y ISSN: 2157-7439 Citation: Anwunobi AP, Emeje MO (2011) Recent Applications of Natural Polymers in Nanodrug Delivery. J Nanomedic Nanotechnol S4:002. doi:10.4172/2157-7439.S4-002

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Martins Emeje

Papers

Recent applications of starch derivatives in nanodrug delivery

Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery

Physicochemical and Binder Properties of Starch Obtained from Cyperus esculentus

Physical, Thermal and Sorption Profile of Starch Obtained from Tacca leontopetaloides

Recent Applications of Natural Polymers in Nanodrug Delivery