English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' task-based practices in 3D multi-user virtual environments are a dynamic avenue that has attracted research attention in current second language acquisition literature. This study explores EFL adult learners' perceptions and language practices in a 10-session, task-based course in Second Life (SL). A full-blown task-based syllabus that capitalized on meaningful real-life tasks was designed and documented in this study. Employing the grounded theory approach and triangulating multiple qualitative data sources, two core themes emerged: factors that influence SL learning experience and effects of task-based instruction on language learning in SL. SL was evidenced as a viable learning environment due to its conspicuous features, immersive and virtual reality, sense of tele- and co-presence. This study implicates that 1) 3D multimodal resources in SL provide EFL learners with visual and linguistic support and facilitate language teaching and learning; and 2) tasks that draw upon SL features, accommodate learners' cultural/world knowledge, and simulate real-life scenarios, can optimize learners' virtual learning experiences. SL serves as an optimal 3D MUVE for language teaching and learning.Unique features in SL augment instruction and make learning fun and engaging.The immersive and creative nature of SL sets it apart from other Web 2.0 tools.Culture-driven and communicative tasks foster virtual learning experience.Simulating real-world tasks deepen knowledge processing and language acquisition.

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The crossroads of English language learners, task-based instruction, and 3D multi-user virtual learning in Second Life

Recent years have seen an increase in the number of researchers and practitioners applying virtual reality (VR) to develop social skills, but varying levels of success have been observed when applying these VR training programs. Due to these disparities, review and summary work is needed to determine (a) whether these programs are effective and (b) the attributes of these programs that lead to success. In the current article, we perform a meta-analysis to determine the overall effectiveness of VR training programs for developing social skills, and we also study the effect of several moderating variables that may influence the effectiveness of these programs. We test whether certain aspects of the applied hardware (e.g. input devices, output devices), applied software (e.g. game elements, Second Life), participant population (e.g. general/specialized), and study design (e.g. type of control group, type of measure, others) influence the success of these programs. Sources were identified using EBSCO and Google Scholar, and, after our inclusion criteria were applied, 23 samples were included in our meta-analysis. Using a random-effects approach, we show that VR training programs, on average, perform better than alternative training programs for developing social skills, but almost all the other findings contradict current notions regarding these programs. Of note, gamified programs produced slightly worse outcomes than non-gamified programs, and programs utilizing immersive technologies (e.g. head-mounted displays) produced slightly worse outcomes than programs utilizing non-immersive displays (e.g. monitors). We provide suggestions regarding the effectiveness of VR training for social skills in comparison to alternative training approaches, the attributes of VR training programs that produce better outcomes, and directions for future research and practice.

A meta-analysis of virtual reality training programs for social skill development

The aim of this study is to investigate recent empirical research studies about 3D virtual learning environments. A total of 167 empirical studies that involve the use of 3D virtual worlds in education were examined by meta-review. Our findings show that the “Second Life” platform has been frequently used in studies. Among the reviewed papers, case study designs and quasi-experimental studies were more common. Sample sizes were below 100 for most studies. 3D virtual learning environments are mainly designed for learning support, simulation, and game. Language learning and science have been the most extensively studied topics. Collaborative and exploration-based learning strategies have been used most frequently in 3D virtual learning environments. Presence, satisfaction, communication skills, and engagement were examined as emotional and cognitive achievements.

3D virtual learning environments in education: a meta-review

Deep and meaningful learning (DML) in distant education should be an essential outcome of quality education. In this literature review, we focus on e-learning effectiveness along with the factors and conditions leading to DML when using social virtual reality environments (SVREs) in distance mode higher education (HE). Hence, a systematic literature review was conducted summarizing the findings from thirty-three empirical studies in HE between 2004 (appearance of VR) and 2019 (before coronavirus appearance). We searched for the cognitive, social, and affective aspects of DML in a research framework and studied their weight in SVREs. The findings suggest that the use of SVREs can provide authentic, simulated, cognitively challenging experiences in engaging, motivating environments for open-ended social and collaborative interactions and intentional, personalized learning. Furthermore, the findings indicate that educators and SVRE designers need to place more emphasis on the socio-cultural semiotics and emotional aspects of e-learning and ethical issues such as privacy and security. The mediating factors for DML in SVREs were accumulated and classified in the resultant Blended Model for Deep and Meaningful e-learning in SVREs. Improvement recommendations include meaningful contexts, purposeful activation, learner agency, intrinsic emotional engagement, holistic social integration, and meticulous user obstacle removal.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/11/5/2412/pdf

Deep and Meaningful E-Learning with Social Virtual Reality Environments in Higher Education: A Systematic Literature Review

3D simulation-based virtual worlds, such as Second Life (hereafter SL), have been substantially adopted in educational settings worldwide. However, elaborations on such applications in regard to tourism education are still limited. In order to expand our current understanding of the applicability of SL to tourism education, this case study was designed and administered in the summer of 2011. The participants were eight college students who were majoring in travel management (N=8); half of them did not have any prior experience with 3D simulation-based platforms. With the design of qualitative research, the present study elicited insightful information about students' perception regarding such application. The major findings of the present study disclosed participants' supportive attitudes toward SL in providing training related to tourism knowledge as well as communicational and interpersonal skills. Learners' self-efficacy as successful future tour leaders also was enhanced.

Web 3D simulation-based application in tourism education: A case study with Second Life

This paper reports on the effects an experimental English as a Foreign Language (EFL) program in Second Life (SL) had on Chinese student EFL learning. The study took an evaluative approach using quasi-experimental design with participants from one Chinese university and one American university in the southeastern United States. Results indicated significant main effects between a control group and the SL group on EFL measures, as well as significant gains in total score and several subcomponents between pre-test and post test. Further analysis using a post study survey, students’ blog posting, and interview transcripts revealed that the SL_EFL Program had a positive impact on students’ EFL learning.

Learning Effects of an Experimental EFL Program in Second Life

This paper reports on a case study of group facilitation in Second Life, a threedimensional virtual world that simulates places either in the real or imaginary worlds with capabilities of synchronous communications in text, gesture, and audio formats. The participants were four graduate students facilitating group discussions in a virtual world called Second Life. The study took a qualitative approach revealing the essence of group facilitation in a virtual world (e.g., Second Life). The article discusses five important themes that emerged through data analysis and offers implications and suggestions for group facilitators to work in a virtual world like Second Life.

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Facilitating Group Discussions in Second Life

Educational researchers have paid considerable attention to the use of multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) to support learning across curricula. Among those MUVEs, Second Life (SL) is one of the most popular. This paper reports on a study of student teachers’ experience of teaching English in an experimental EFL (English as a Foreign Language) program in Second Life (SL) with students in China. This study was a collaborative effort of faculty members and graduate students of both a state university in the USA and a provincial university in China. The study took a case study approach to reveal student teachers’ perceptions of their teaching in SL, what they have learned and discusses the implications for teaching in similar EFL programs in SL.

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Teaching in an EFL Program in Second Life: Student Teachers’ Perspectives and Implications

A collective reflection on doing an autoethnography in online doctoral education

Research has shown that girls' confidence and ability perception are critical to their beliefs, attitudes, and interests concerning the pursuit of mathematics and science. In historically male-dominated fields, females often have a tenuous relationship with STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) disciplines. This autoethnographic study explores one girl's trajectory away from a keen interest in mathematics and science in favour of social sciences. Four central themes were identified as critical to females' interest, pursuit, and advancement into STEM careers, including gender-based socialisation; confidence, ability, and achievement; classroom environment and school curriculum; and family 'curriculum making'. The findings that impacted the divergence from STEM are revealed through interviews with the author's parents and expressed through a reflexive narrative. The findings in this paper suggest several actions that families and schools might take to support the STEM aspirations of young female students.Keywords: STEM; leaky pipeline; girlsâ education; autoethnography; Feminist theoryPart of the special issue Autoethnography in online doctoral education <https://doi.org/10.21428/8c225f6e.9415e58d> 

Mary L. McDowell Lefaiver

Papers

Learning Effects of an Experimental EFL Program in Second Life

Facilitating Group Discussions in Second Life

Teaching in an EFL Program in Second Life: Student Teachers’ Perspectives and Implications

A collective reflection on doing an autoethnography in online doctoral education

An invisible fork in the road: The autoethnography of a female social scientist