Although most agree that games can be engaging and that games can be instructive, there is little consensus regarding the essential characteristics of instructional games. Implicit in the research literature is the notion that if we pair instructional content with certain game features, we can harness the power of games to engage users and achieve desired instructional goals. In this article, the authors present an input-process- output model of instructional games and learning that elaborates (a) the key features of games that are of interest from an instructional perspective; (b) the game cycle of user judgments, behavior, and feedback that is a hallmark of engagement in game play; and (c) the types of learning outcomes that can be achieved. The authors discuss the implications of this approach for the design and implementation of effective instruc- tional games.

https://www.biziga.in/downloads/Garris%20et%20al%20-%202002%20-%20Games,%20motivation,%20and%20learning%20-%20441.pdf

Games, Motivation, and Learning: A Research and Practice Model:

The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.

/pdf/cognitive-reserve-in-ageing-and-alzheimer-s-disease-2ksgairnop.pdf

Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease

▪ Abstract This chapter reviews the training research literature reported over the past decade. We describe the progress in five areas of research including training theory, training needs analysis, antecedent training conditions, training methods and strategies, and posttraining conditions. Our review suggests that advancements have been made that help us understand better the design and delivery of training in organizations, with respect to theory development as well as the quality and quantity of empirical research. We have new tools for analyzing requisite knowledge and skills, and for evaluating training. We know more about factors that influence training effectiveness and transfer of training. Finally, we challenge researchers to find better ways to translate the results of training research into practice.

The Science of Training: A Decade of Progress

This book describes the new perspective of naturalistic decision making. The point of departure is how people make decisions in complex, time-pressured, ambiguous, and changing environments. The purpose of this book is to present and elaborate on past models developed to explain this type of decision making. The central philosophy of the book is that classical decision theory has been unproductive since it is so heavily grounded in economics and mathematics. The contributors believe there is little to be learned from laboratory studies about how people actually handle difficult and interesting tasks; therefore, the book presents a critique of classical decision theory. The models of naturalistic decision making described by the contributors were derived to explain the behavior of firefighters, business people, jurors, nuclear power plant operators, and command-and-control officers. The models are unique in that they address the way people use experience to frame situations and adopt courses of action. The models explain the strengths of skilled decision makers. Naturalistic decision research requires the examination of field settings, and a section of the book covers methods for conducting meaningful research outside the laboratory. In addition, since his approach has applied value, the book covers issues of training and decision support systems.

Decision Making in Action: Models and Methods

The present review focuses on the utility of the amplitude of P3 of as a measure of processing capacity and mental workload. The paper starts with a brief outline of the conceptual framework underlying the relationship between P3 amplitude and task demands, and the cognitive task manipulations that determine demands on capacity. P3 amplitude results are then discussed on the basis of an extensive review of the relevant literature. It is concluded that although it has often been assumed that P3 amplitude depends on the capacity for processing task relevant stimuli, the utility of P3 amplitude as a sensitive and diagnostic measure of processing capacity remains limited. The major factor that prompts this conclusion is that the two principal task variables that have been used to manipulate capacity allocation, namely task difficulty and task emphasis, have opposite effects on the amplitude of P3. I suggest that this is because, in many tasks, an increase in difficulty transforms the structure or actual content of the flow of information in the processing systems, thereby interfering with the very processes that underlie P3 generation. Finally, in an attempt to theoretically integrate the results of the reviewed studies, it is proposed that P3 amplitude reflects activation of elements in a event-categorization network that is controlled by the joint operation of attention and working memory.

On the utility of P3 amplitude as a measure of processing capacity

An experimental study was conducted to test the transfer of skills from a complex computer game to the flight performance of cadets in the Israeli Air Force flight school. The context relevance of the game to flight was argued on the basis of a skill-oriented task analysis, using the framework provided by contemporary models of the human processing system. The influence of two embedded training strategies was compared, one focusing on the specific skills involved in performing the game, the other designed to improve the general ability of trainees to cope with the high processing and response demands of the flight task and teach better strategies of attention control. Efficient control and management of attention under high task load are argued to be skills that can improve with proper training and generalize to new situations. Flight performance scores of two groups of cadets who received 10 h of training in the computer game were compared with those of a matched group without game experience. Both game ...

Transfer of Skill from a Computer Game Trainer to Flight

Practice under changing priorities: An approach to the training of complex skills☆

A study was conducted at the flight school of the Israeli Airforce to test the transfer of skills from a complex computer game to flight. The context relevance of the game to flight was argued on the basis of a skill oriented task analysis, anchored in contemporary models of the human processing system. The influence of two embeded training strategies was compared, one focusing on the specific skills involved in performing the game, the other designed to improve the general ability of trainees to cope with the high attention load of the flight task. Flight scores of two groups of cadets who received 10 hours of training in the computer game were compared with those of a matched group of cadets without game experience. Both game groups performed significantly better than the no game group in the subsequent test flights. They also had higher final percentage of graduation from the flight training program. The game has now been incorporated in the regular training program of the airforce.

The Transfer of Skill from a Computer Game Trainer to Actual Flight

Fidelity of task structure is proposed to replace physical fidelity, as a cost effective guiding principle in the development of trainers for complex tasks. The paper describes a research project in which a complex computer game was designed to mimic the requirements of flight skill. It was then employed as part trainer within an actual flight training program. The game was mainly directed to teach subjects strategies of attention control and efficient allocation of processing resources. It was found to improve trainees performance in flight. The paper discusses the theoretical roots of the proposed approach and some results of its application in an actual training environment.

Fidelity of Task Structure as a Guiding Principle in the Development of Skill Trainers Based upon Complex Computer Games

Malfunctions and minor technical problems in system operation are not a rare event when humans interact with engineering systems. When a problem is detected, the system should, in principle, be halted and repaired. Often, however, operators decide to continue their work and adopt alternative modes of behavior that bypass or compensate for the malfunctions. We label this type of responses “compensatory behaviors”. They are adopted because the operator judges them to be less costly than the costs involved in stopping and repairing the system. Twenty Subjects, had four sessions of training, with a simulated filling work station in a chemical plant, where 8 simultaneous tanks had to be filled with lethal solutions. Malfunctions in the automatic filling regulator of one of the tanks, occurred intermittently, resulting in two types of risks: a high risk failure could explode the entire system at the cost of 200 points; a low risk failure could lead to a defective container, translated to a loss of 10 points. Su...

Maya Weil

Papers

Transfer of Skill from a Computer Game Trainer to Flight

Practice under changing priorities: An approach to the training of complex skills☆

The Transfer of Skill from a Computer Game Trainer to Actual Flight

Fidelity of Task Structure as a Guiding Principle in the Development of Skill Trainers Based upon Complex Computer Games

A Double Edge Sword: Compensatory Behavior in Coping with System Malfunctions