The Social Psychology of Organizations.

We examine how social capital dimensions of networks affect the transfer of knowledge between network members. We distinguish among three common network types: intracorporate networks, strategic alliances, and industrial districts. Using a social capital framework, we identify structural, cognitive, and relational dimensions for the three network types. We then link these social capital dimensions to the conditions that facilitate knowledge transfer. In doing so, we propose a set of conditions that promote knowledge transfer for the different network types.

Social Capital, Networks, and Knowledge Transfer

A quantitative review of 55 studies supports the conclusion that job attitudes are robust predictors of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The relationship between job satisfaction and OCB is stronger than that between satisfaction and in-role performance, at least among nonmanagerial and nonprofessional groups. Other attitudinal measures (perceived fairness, organizational commitment, leader supportiveness) correlate with OCB at roughly the same level as satisfaction. Dispositional measures do not correlate nearly as well with OCB (with the exception of conscientiousness). The most notable moderator of these correlations appears to be the use of self- versus other-rating of OCB; self-ratings are associated with higher correlations, suggesting spurious inflation due to common method variance, and much greater variance in correlation. Differences in subject groups and work settings do not account for much variance in the relationships. Implications are noted for theory, practice, and strategies for future research on OCB.

A meta-analytic review of attitudinal and dispositional predictors of organizational citizenship behavior

The job demands-resources (JD-R) model was used to examine the relationship between job characteristics, burnout, and (other-ratings of) performance (N = 146). We hypothesized that job demands (e.g., work pressure and emotional demands) would be the most important antecedents of the exhaustion component of burnout, which, in turn, would predict in-role performance (hypothesis 1). In contrast, job resources (e.g., autonomy and social support) were hypothesized to be the most important predictors of extra-role performance, through their relationship with the disengagement component of burnout (hypothesis 2). In addition, we predicted that job resources would buffer the relationship between job demands and exhaustion (hypothesis 3), and that exhaustion would be positively related to disengagement (hypothesis 4). The results of structural equation modeling analyses provided strong support for hypotheses 1, 2, and 4, but rejected hypothesis 3. These findings support the JD-R model's claim that job demands and job resources initiate two psychological processes, which eventually affect organizational outcomes. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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Using the job demands-resources model to predict burnout and performance

A comprehensive review of the outcomes associated with work-to-family conflict was conducted and effect sizes were estimated. Atypology was presented that grouped outcomes into 3 categories: work related, nonwork related, and stress related. Issues concerning the measurement of work-family conflict were also discussed. The results demonstrate the widespread and serious consequences associated with work-to-family conflict. On the basis of the results of the review, an agenda for future research was provided.

Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: a review and agenda for future research.

Organizational citizenship was recently proposed as a form of job performance which may be more strongly related to job satisfaction than performance measures employed in previous job satisfaction-job performance research. However organizational citizenship holds more promise for organizational behavior research than merely its relationship to job satisfaction. Organ (1988a) argues that organizational citizenship, in the aggregate, promotes the effective functioning of the organization. Citizenship is defined as "supra-role behavior," that is, behavior which goes beyond formal job descriptions but which is desired by an organization (Organ, 1988a). Examples include helping co-workers who fall behind in task performance, keeping a work area clean, accepting temporary assignments without complaint, volunteering for tasks that are not assigned, and making suggestions which will improve the department (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Smith, Organ & Near, 1983). This paper presents the results of the studies which have...

Organizational Citizenship: A Review, Proposed Model, and Research Agenda

The majority of work in organizational behaviour has been conducted at the individual level of theory, measurement and analysis. While the field of organizational behaviour may be viewed as largely mixed-level, incorporating individual, group and organizational-level phenomena, relatively few group-level and mixed-level theories with corresponding levels of research exist. This is particularly problematic for organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) research, since OCB is theorized to exist at multiple levels. Several individual-level and group-level antecedents affect OCB, but it is OCB in the aggregate (i.e. group and organizational level) which impacts organizational effectiveness, which is another organizational-level phenomenon.

A brief review of group-level and mixed-level research methodology is presented and these methods are then applied to a burgeoning area of organizational behaviour research, one which is inherently group and mixed-level, organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB). Implications of the different levels of measurement and analysis for OCB theory development and testing are discussed.

Levels of measurement and analysis issues in organizational citizenship behaviour research

Equity in Effort: The "Sucker Effect" in Co-Acting Groups

The purpose of this study was to determine whether an affective response affects the dimensionality of perceptual measures of organizational climate. To accomplish this 8,938 nonsupervisory employees of a large utility completed both an organizational climate questionnaire and a measure of job satisfaction. The raw scores on the climate instrument were factor analyzed. Then the job satisfaction scores were partialed out of the intercorrelations of the items making up the climate instrument and the residual scores were submitted to a factor analysis. The results suggest that partialing job satisfaction out of responses to an organizational climate questionnaire served to improve the dimensionality of the climate instrument.

An empirical assessment of the effects of affective response in the measurement of organizational climate

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is defined as discretionary behaviors which benefit the organization (Organ, 1988a) Organ (1988a) has suggested that OCB is composed of five dimensions: Altruism, Conscientiousness, Sportsmanship, Courtesy, and Civic Virtue Altruism consists of discretionary behaviors which are aimed at helping specific persons with an organizationally relevant task or problem Conscientiousness, which was originally called Generalized Compliance, refers to employees going beyond minimal requirements in carrying out their assigned tasks Sportsmanship refers to activities that employees refrain from doing, such as complaining and filing petty grievances Courtesy includes such actions as giving others advance notice, issuing reminders to others, checking with others before taking action, and passing along information Civic Virtue is defined as responsible participation in the political life of the organization (Graham, 1986) Employees engaging in this type of OCB keep themselves informed of matters affecting the organization, attend meetings, contribute to discussions, and generally get involved in organizational activities in order to assist and improve the organization Empirical support for a five-factor structure of OCB has been provided in two studies employing confirmatory factor analysis (Moorman et al, 1991; Podsakoff et al, 1990; Williams et al, 1986) The purpose of this research is to more fully examine the relationships between job satisfaction, leadership behaviors, perceived equity and organizational citizenship by including a measure of all five dimensions of OCB; two dimensions of leadership, consideration and initiating structure; two dimensions of job satisfaction, intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic satisfaction; and two dimensions of perceived equity, pay equity and job equity Much OCB research to date has treated job satisfaction, leadership, and perceived equity as unidimensional variables For example, OCB research has examined only leader supportiveness, which is similar to consideration, but not the second major dimension of leadership, initiating structure Leader supportiveness has been hypothesized to be related to OCB in that engaging in OCB is one way for employees to "pay back" their leader for this supportiveness However, initiating structure behaviors, such as assigning tasks, setting goals, and telling employees exactly what to do, may be viewed by employees as helping behaviors in some situations Thus, employees may reciprocate with OCB after their leader engages in initiating structure behaviors when they are necessary Relationships between dimensions of these variables and dimensions of OCB have not yet been examined simultaneously OCB and Job Satisfaction Early research focused on relationships between job satisfaction or affect and OCB Job satisfaction was expected to be correlated to OCB for two primary reasons First, due to the norm of reciprocity, people tend to want to reciprocate others who help or benefit them Organizations or managers who create conditions where employees experience job satisfaction may cause these employees to want to reciprocate the favor Since, in many cases, in-role job performance may be constrained, employees may use extra-role behaviors such as OCB to "pay back" their manager or organization (Organ, 1977, 1990) Second, there is ample evidence in the psychological literature that persons who experience a positive affect state tend to engage in prosocial behaviors (Clark and Isen, 1982) In the organizational literature several studies produced results which suggest a significant, positive relationship between job satisfaction and OCB (Bateman and Organ, 1983; Puffer, 1987) Examining the Altruism and Generalized Compliance (Conscientiousness) dimensions of OCB, Smith et al (1983) found significant direct effects of job satisfaction on Altruism, but not on Generalized Compliance, suggesting that job satisfaction produces helping behaviors directed at specific persons, but not at the overall organization …

Mel E. Schnake

Papers

Organizational Citizenship: A Review, Proposed Model, and Research Agenda

Levels of measurement and analysis issues in organizational citizenship behaviour research

Equity in Effort: The "Sucker Effect" in Co-Acting Groups

An empirical assessment of the effects of affective response in the measurement of organizational climate

Encouraging Organizational Citizenship: The Effects of Job Satisfaction, Perceived Equity and Leadership