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Remote Sensing And Image Interpretation

The validity of the cubic law for laminar flow of fluids through open fractures consisting of parallel planar plates has been established by others over a wide range of conditions with apertures ranging down to a minimum of 0.2 µm. The law may be given in simplified form by Q/Δh = C(2b)3, where Q is the flow rate, Δh is the difference in hydraulic head, C is a constant that depends on the flow geometry and fluid properties, and 2b is the fracture aperture. The validity of this law for flow in a closed fracture where the surfaces are in contact and the aperture is being decreased under stress has been investigated at room temperature by using homogeneous samples of granite, basalt, and marble. Tension fractures were artificially induced, and the laboratory setup used radial as well as straight flow geometries. Apertures ranged from 250 down to 4µm, which was the minimum size that could be attained under a normal stress of 20 MPa. The cubic law was found to be valid whether the fracture surfaces were held open or were being closed under stress, and the results are not dependent on rock type. Permeability was uniquely defined by fracture aperture and was independent of the stress history used in these investigations. The effects of deviations from the ideal parallel plate concept only cause an apparent reduction in flow and may be incorporated into the cubic law by replacing C by C/ƒ. The factor ƒ varied from 1.04 to 1.65 in these investigations. The model of a fracture that is being closed under normal stress is visualized as being controlled by the strength of the asperities that are in contact. These contact areas are able to withstand significant stresses while maintaining space for fluids to continue to flow as the fracture aperture decreases. The controlling factor is the magnitude of the aperture, and since flow depends on (2b)3, a slight change in aperture evidently can easily dominate any other change in the geometry of the flow field. Thus one does not see any noticeable shift in the correlations of our experimental results in passing from a condition where the fracture surfaces were held open to one where the surfaces were being closed under stress.

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VALIDITY OF CUBIC LAW FOR FLUID FLOW IN A DEFORMABLE ROCK FRACTURE - eScholarship

The author was the Project Leader of the British Geological Survey (BGS) Research Projects on Basement Aquifers and Collector Wells. This introductory paper constitutes an overview of crystalline basement aquifer occurrence, geological and climatic controls, evolution, geometry, hydraulic parameters, resources and recharge, combined with a discussion on exploration and management. Data from the BGS Research Projects Report Series are incorporated.

The hydrogeology of crystalline basement aquifers in Africa; introduction

Evaluation of surface water quality and heavy metal indices of Ismailia Canal, Nile River, Egypt

An overview of integrated remote sensing and GIS for groundwater mapping in Egypt

The present drinking water purification system in Egypt uses surface water as a raw water supply without a preliminary filtration process. On the other hand, chlorine gas is added as a disinfectant agent in two steps, pre- and post-chlorination. Due to these reasons most of water treatment plants suffer low filtering effectiveness and produce the trihalomethane (THM) species as a chlorination by-product. The Ismailia Canal represents the most distal downstream of the main Nile River. Thus its water contains all the proceeded pollutants discharged into the Nile. In addition, the downstream reaches of the canal act as an agricultural drain during the closing period of the High Dam gates in January and February every year. Moreover, the wide industrial zone along the upstream course of the canal enriches the canal water with high concentrations of heavy metals. The obtained results indicate that the canal gains up to 24.06×106 m3 of water from the surrounding shallow aquifer during the closing period of the High Dam gates, while during the rest of the year, the canal acts as an influent stream losing about 99.6×106 m3 of its water budget. The reduction of total organic carbon (TOC) and suspended particulate matters (SPMs) should be one of the central goals of any treatment plan to avoid the disinfectants by-products. The combination of sedimentation basins, gravel pre-filtration and slow sand filtration, and underground passage with microbiological oxidation-reduction and adsorption criteria showed good removal of parasites and bacteria and complete elimination of TOC, SPM and heavy metals. Moreover, it reduces the use of disinfectants chemicals and lowers the treatment costs. However, this purification system under the arid climate prevailing in Egypt should be tested and modified prior to application.

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Problems of drinking water treatment along Ismailia Canal Province, Egypt

Environmental isotope analyses in conjunction with the hydro-geochemical investigations and tentative reviewing of the paleoclimatic sea level changes are carried out to fingerprint the implications of climatic changes on the groundwater flow regime and geochemistry at the Nile Delta Following up the footprints of groundwater flow history, it is observed that the Pleistocene, main groundwater aquifer of the Nile Delta was drained and refilled with Nile water several times due to the eustatic sea level propagations between dry and wet periods Therefore, the present-day groundwater flow regime could be affected by the latest Holocene phase of climate changes during which no significant dramatic sea level changes were recorded After the time slice of the Mediterranean humid phase, 8000-5500 BP, the sea level started to rise steeply from –15 m to the present-day level Under this rising rate, the seawater invaded most of the northern delta lope and several 10ths of kilometres inland via the mouths of the ancient Nile branches During these arid conditions, deterioration of the Pleistocene unconfined aquifer could take place This finding matches a famine and economic instabilities during the arid periods and flourishing and economic stabilities during the humid pluvial periods along the history of the ancient Egyptian civilization In accordance to the latest active sea level rise stage in conjunction with the delta subsidence, a contagious groundwater level rise with a recent order of 3 cm/year is taking place leading to form several lake-like lagoons, water logging and soil salinization along the coastal plain and the eastern low lands The Nile Delta is expected to suffer extreme soil salinization and gradual merging under the groundwater logging and seawater transgression especially, along the eastern coastal zone which suffers a high subsidence rate of about 5 mm/year In contrast to previous studies, our findings show that, the present groundwater composition and salinity in the Nile Delta aquifers cannot be attributed to a recent seawater intrusion The physico-chemical processes that explain this composition are combination of salt dissolution (mainly from Holocene fluvio-marine aquifer), flushing by recent Nile water, ion exchange and evaporation

Implications of climate change on the groundwater flow regime and geochemistry of the Nile Delta, Egypt

Ismailia Canal is the principle source of drinking water supply to Suez Canal and Sinai governorates. However, Ismailia Canal is endangered from unwise activities in the surrounding environment. Drinking water resources protection can be implemented using land-use monitoring system or through land-use controls based on hydrogeologic mapping to study the impacts of development on water quality. Our approach is to protect the direct and indirect catchment areas for surface water supply, especially the sensitive areas, those that are more vulnerable to contamination than other areas. Remote sensing and geographic information system techniques are applied to construct and integrate the hydrogeological data, inventory for potential sources of contamination and mapping the sensitive areas in order to construct the a protected buffer zone for Ismailia Canal, and to constrain the development activities in all the surrounding areas of surface water supply. The sensitive areas are delineated, where extra protection is required, based on soils properties, geology, and specific hydrogeological criteria. Industrial areas, drains, and septic tanks in the surrounding villages are the common potential sources of contamination. The hydrologic relation between Ismailia Canal and groundwater has great variations. Comprehensive plan for water protection were composed. It includes maintaining three natural protection zones of at least 300-m width along the main course of the Canal and delineating vulnerable zones depending on the aerial extension of the sensitive areas within 10 km on both sides of the Canal. Specific protection measures are recommended over the sensitive areas. The natural ecosystems of swamps around Ismailia Canal should be conserved and the processes of continuous burial prevented.

Define a protected buffer zone for Ismailia Canal, Egypt using Geographic Information Systems

Port Said Canal is one of the man-made Nile branches in Egypt that gain its water supply via the Ismailia Canal. The canal extended parallel to the Suez Canal navigation route providing the surrounding region the necessary drinking and irrigation waters. The water treatment plants along the canal use the surface water as a crude supply without preliminary pre-filtration process, and chlorination is applied in two phases, which may impose some health hazards. The study aims to ensure that the finished water is safe to drink and meet the international drinking water regulations. The public water purification systems in four treatment plants along Port Said Canal were tested for their efficiency and chlorination by-products. Raw and treated waters in these plants were analyzed for organic, toxic, trace, and heavy elements. Flow measurements were implemented at five sections along the main canal course during the summer and the winter seasons. Results indicated that the treated water suffers from low filtering effectiveness and exceeds the drinking water standards for the trihalomethane species. Furthermore, the change of canal flow from influent to effluent conditions during the winter season increases the contaminants’ concentrations. Also, the heavy metal concentrations in the treated water samples from all treatment works were much higher than that of the raw water samples, especially for those higher in suspended particulate matter. The study proposed a better purification system including, sedimentation and gravel pre-filtration combined with slow sand filtration and underground water passage for the elimination of the existing pollution problems.

Assessment of drinking water quality along Port Said Canal treatment plants, Suez Canal corridor, Egypt

Groundwater (GW) is the primary source of water for local inhabitants in the Yemen Republic. The Yemen Republic is dominated by an arid and semi-arid climate and suffers from a scarcity of natural resources and a soaring population growth rate. The IBB basin is one of the areas of main concern in Yemen, as the ascending local inhabitant’s activities have led to an increase in the water demand throughout the IBB City (The major City of IBB basin area). The area is mainly covered by stratified volcanic rocks of Tertiary age. The current research aims to delineate, identify, integrate, assess and map the groundwater potentiality (GWP) zones in the Tertiary volcanic aquifer of the IBB basin, Yemen utilizing space-borne data and weighted overlay method in GIS tools. Thematic layers such as lithology, slope, plain curvature, structural lineaments density, geomorphology, land use/land cover, drainage density, and rainfall intensity were used as factors in the geo-database building of the GW potentiality map. To each class of the factor layers, a fixed score was assigned. The scores were ranked, and the weighted sum for all layers was calculated. Finally, a GW potentiality map of the IBB basin area was constructed by integrating the weighted thematic digital maps. The integrated model’s results were classified into three main categories; low, moderate, and high GWP. The model validity was tested by considering the geospatial relationship between the resulted recharge productive zones and the distribution of the real-life productive wells and springs of IBB basin area. The integrated results successively delineate the GW potential zones in the IBB basin and raise awareness to methods useful for the management of GW resources and water recovery plans.

Mohamed H. Geriesh

Papers

Problems of drinking water treatment along Ismailia Canal Province, Egypt

Implications of climate change on the groundwater flow regime and geochemistry of the Nile Delta, Egypt

Define a protected buffer zone for Ismailia Canal, Egypt using Geographic Information Systems

Assessment of drinking water quality along Port Said Canal treatment plants, Suez Canal corridor, Egypt

Groundwater potentiality mapping of tertiary volcanic aquifer in IBB basin, Yemen by using remote sensing and GIS tools