Publisher Summary This chapter discusses self-generated attitude change. The thought about some nonneutral attitude object in the absence of any new external information or change in overt behavior often results in attitude polarization. Attitude polarization seems to be predicated on cognitive changes such as the addition of consistent cognitions and the reinterpretation of existing inconsistent cognitions. Such changes in cognitions and affect are expected to occur only to the extent that persons have a developed cognitive schema for thinking about the object. One's attitude is a function of those salient cognitions and inferences. The data suggest that persons can tune in more than one schema for thinking about a particular object. Thus, persons have the potential for more than one attitude toward the same object. Some implications for the relationship between attitudes and behavior and for psychotherapy were touched upon. The relationship between this research and group polarization research and mere exposure research are briefly explored. It points out a number of aspects of the present approach that are in need of further elaboration.

Self-Generated Attitude Change

Conditioned taste aversion induced by self-administered drugs: Paradox revisited

Taste aversion and the generality of the laws of learning.

A bibliographic list of 403 articles dealing specifically with conditioned taste aversions from 1950–1975 is provided. In addition, the references are classified according to six major categories in a topical index. The major categories are Parameters of Conditioning, Physiological Manipulations, Pharmacological Interventions, Methodology, Comparative, and General Information. References were obtained from individual journals in psychology, physiology, pharmacology, and animal behavior and were supplemented and extended byPsychological Abstracts. A final source of references was provided by individual researchers who contributed preprints and reprints.

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Conditioned taste aversions: A bibliography

The role of fear in theories of avoidance learning, flooding, and extinction.

The “drug novelty hypothesis” was tested directly by giving rats experience with intraperitoneal injections of ethanol on days prior to avoidance training. This preavoidance experience with ethanol was found to eliminate the prolonged extinction of avoidance responding observed after a single exposure to ethanol. It is suggested that these findings confirm the novelty hypothesis in an active avoidance situation. Possible mechanisms of the drug novelty effect were discussed.

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Drug effects and avoidance-extinction in rats: A test of the drug novelty hypothesis using ethanol

Rapid extinction of a conditioned taste aversion following unreinforced intraperitoneal injection of the fluid CS.

Extinction of avoidance in rats: the effects of chlorpromazine and methylphenidate administered in conjunction with flooding response (prevention).

Five groups of rats were given an avoidance-extinction session immediately after acquisition and flooding or a control procedure. Flooding consisted of exposing the animal to the feared situation (CS) in the absence of shock, while removing the avoidance contingency. Flooding was carried out in three different ways, the object being to compare different techniques of flooding. Two forms of flooding, reducing the intertrial interval to zero (prolonging the "CS") or response blocking (prevention), were found to be equally effective in producing the rapid cessation of avoidance responding in extinction. Both were superior to a third technique of flooding which involved removing part of the apparatus to render the· avoidance response impossible during flooding. Reasons for this differential efficacy of three flooding procedures were discussed. While avoidance responding may persist for a great many trials in extinction, extinction can be greatly accelerated by procedures which have been referred to as "flooding" or "response prevention" or "detainment." Baum (1971) has recommended the term flooding to refer to these techniques, all of which have in common that they expose the organism to the feared cues or CS underlying the behavior while removing the avoidance contingency. While flooding is undoubtedly effective in hastening avoidance extinction (e.g., Baum, 1966), there are several waus in which the technique can be applied. One method of administering flooding involves allowing the avoidance response to be made at will by the animal,

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Extinction of avoidance behavior: Comparison of various flooding procedures in rats

In a one-way avoidance task with rats, injections of Librium (chlordiazepoxide) following avoidance acquisition resulted in prolonged resistance-to-extinction of the avoidance response. This effect occurred regardless of whether the rats had had prior experience with Librium or whether they were naive with respect to the drug. The same results were found with the same task when low doses of Valium were used. However, at a higher dosage an “extreme reaction” of either no responding or a high number of responses to extinction occurred in the naive animals. The Librium and Valium effects were compared to similar effects obtained using ethanol and hashish resin. These results indicate that the novelty hypothesis as originally stated by Amit and Baum cannot be supported because experience with the drugs prior to avoidance training did not attenuate the drug effect on avoidance.

Morrie Baum

Papers

Drug effects and avoidance-extinction in rats: A test of the drug novelty hypothesis using ethanol

Rapid extinction of a conditioned taste aversion following unreinforced intraperitoneal injection of the fluid CS.

Extinction of avoidance in rats: the effects of chlorpromazine and methylphenidate administered in conjunction with flooding response (prevention).

Extinction of avoidance behavior: Comparison of various flooding procedures in rats

Resistance to extinction of an avoidance response in rats following the administration of chlordiazepoxide (Librium) or diazepam (Valium).