The calculation and use of effect sizes—such as d for mean differences and r for correlations—has increased dramatically in second language (L2) research in the last decade. Interpretations of these effects, however, have been rare and, when present, have largely defaulted to Cohen's levels of small (d = .2, r = .1), medium (.5, .3), and large (.8, .5), which were never intended as prescriptions but rather as a general guide. As Cohen himself and many others have argued, effect sizes are best understood when interpreted within a particular discipline or domain. This article seeks to promote more informed and field-specific interpretations of d and r by presenting a description of L2 effects from 346 primary studies and 91 meta-analyses (N > 604,000). Results reveal that Cohen's benchmarks generally underestimate the effects obtained in L2 research. Based on our analysis, we propose a field-specific scale for interpreting effect sizes, and we outline eight key considerations for gauging relative magnitude and practical significance in primary and secondary studies, such as theoretical maturity in the domain, the degree of experimental manipulation, and the presence of publication bias.

How Big Is “Big”? Interpreting Effect Sizes in L2 Research

A cognitive approach to language learning

Despite the fact that learners’ identities are thought to be shaped by foreign/second (L2) language learning, the emergence of self-related issues in L2 motivation research is relatively recent. The aim of the present chapter is to summarize our knowledge about one particular self-theory in relation to L2 learning motivation, that is, the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) (Dornyei, The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005) and its components: the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self and L2 learning experience. I start by describing the emergence of the model and introducing empirical investigations about the verification of constructs pertaining to the model. Next, I present research that has been conducted on the model, paying special attention to the interdisciplinary nature of the relevant studies, to the concept of motivation as vision, and to contextual issues, multilingualism, and the model’s potential links to dynamic systems theory. Finally, future research directions are suggested by taking into account the strength of the model and the shortcomings of previous research.

The L2 Motivational Self System

The L2 motivational self system, L2 anxiety, and motivated behavior: A structural equation modeling approach

Ema Ushioda Trinity College Dublin, Ireland LANGUAGE LEARNING AT UNIVERSITY: EXPLORING THE ROLE OF MOTIVATIONAL THINKING

4. The L2 Motivational Self System among Japanese, Chinese and Iranian Learners of English: A Comparative Study

The present study aims to provide observational evidence on the relationship between teachers' use of motivational strategies and students' motivated behavior in the English as a foreign language (EFL) context of Iran. To this end, 741 male learners of English from 26 secondary school classes taught by 17 teachers participated in the study. The teachers' use of motivational strategies and the students' motivated behavioral codes were measured using a classroom observation instrument originally developed by Guilloteaux and Dornyei (2008). Furthermore, the participating students completed a questionnaire that consisted of both situation-specific and general-motivational scales. Finally, a post hoc rating scale was employed to evaluate the teachers' overall motivational practice. The results showed that the teachers' motivational practice is significantly related to the students' motivated behavior. Further, while no differences were found between high-motivation and low-motivation learner groups in terms of their ideal second language (L2) selves, the low-motivation group had stronger ought-to L2 selves. The results will be discussed with reference to the socio-educational context of Iran.

Teacher Motivational Practice, Student Motivation, and Possible L2 Selves: An Examination in the Iranian EFL Context

The study aimed to identify different second language (L2) learner motivational types drawing on the framework of the L2 motivational self system. A total of 1,278 secondary school students learning English in Iran completed a questionnaire survey. Cluster analysis yielded five different groups based on the strength of different variables within their motivational configurations. Further analyses revealed that the motivational groups have different motivational, emotional, and linguistic characteristics. In the second part of the study, the sample was divided into promotion-focus and prevention-focus groups based on the self-regulatory focus theory. Partial correlation analysis showed that while the ideal L2 self and instrumentality promotion were associated with motivated learning behavior for both the promotion-focus and prevention-focus groups, only the ought-to L2 self and instrumentality prevention were associated with motivated behavior for the prevention-focus group. The study highlights the importance of considering motivational types in L2 motivation research.

Mostafa Papi

Papers

4. The L2 Motivational Self System among Japanese, Chinese and Iranian Learners of English: A Comparative Study

The L2 motivational self system, L2 anxiety, and motivated behavior: A structural equation modeling approach

Teacher Motivational Practice, Student Motivation, and Possible L2 Selves: An Examination in the Iranian EFL Context

Language Learner Motivational Types: A Cluster Analysis Study

Motivation and feedback: How implicit theories of intelligence predict L2 writers’ motivation and feedback orientation