Ecosystems are multifunctional and provide humanity with a broad array of vital services. Effective management of services requires an improved evidence base, identifying the role of ecosystems in delivering multiple services, which can assist policy- makers in maintaining them. Here, information from the literature and scientific experts was used to systematically document the importance of services and identify trends in their use and status over time for the main terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems in Europe. The results from this review show that intensively managed ecosystems contribute mostly to vital provisioning services (e.g. agro-ecosystems provide food via crops and livestock, and forests provide wood), while semi-natural ecosystems (e.g. grasslands and mountains) are

Identifying and prioritising services in European terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems Paula A. HarrisonMarie VandewalleMartin T. Sykes • Pam M. BerryRob BugterFrancesco de BelloChristian K. Feld • Ulf GrandinRichard HarringtonJohn R. HaslettRob H. G. Jongman • Gary W. LuckPedro Martins da SilvaMari Moora •

Ecosystems are multifunctional and provide humanity with a broad array of vital services. Effective management of services requires an improved evidence base, identifying the role of ecosystems in delivering multiple services, which can assist policy-makers in maintaining them. Here, information from the literature and scientific experts was used to systematically document the importance of services and identify trends in their use and status over time for the main terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems in Europe. The results from this review show that intensively managed ecosystems contribute mostly to vital provisioning services (e.g. agro-ecosystems provide food via crops and livestock, and forests provide wood), while semi-natural ecosystems (e.g. grasslands and mountains) are key contributors of genetic resources and cultural services (e.g. aesthetic values and sense of place). The most recent European trends in human use of services show increases in demand for crops from agro-ecosystems, timber from forests, water flow regulation from rivers, wetlands and mountains, and recreation and ecotourism in most ecosystems, but decreases in livestock production, freshwater capture fisheries, wild foods and virtually all services associated with ecosystems which have considerably decreased in area (e.g. semi-natural grasslands). The condition of the majority of services show either a degraded or mixed status across Europe with the exception of recent enhancements in timber production in forests and mountains, freshwater provision, water/erosion/natural hazard regulation and recreation/ecotourism in mountains, and climate regulation in forests. Key gaps in knowledge were evident for certain services across all ecosystems, including the provision of biochemicals and natural medicines, genetic resources and the regulating services of seed dispersal, pest/disease regulation and invasion resistance.

Identifying and prioritising services in European terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems

The study aims to determine the effect of Agriculture Policy on wheat production in Pakistan. The effect of change in tax/subsidy on agricultural productivity depends upon their respective sensitivities, which is reflected through the value of Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC). NPC is a ratio between border prices and prices received by the local producer. Using the data for the period 1971-2006, the study concludes that the government policy has insignificant effect on wheat production though the sign of its coefficient is positive. JEL Classification: H23, H24, Q18.

Agricultural policy and wheat production: a case study of pakistan

Agricultural Growth in the EC and the Effect of the CAP

In 2005, the Economic Union of West African States (ECOWAS) decided to create a common agricultural policy (ECOWAP), with food sovereignty and the promotion of efficient family farms as its main aims. The structure and instruments of the policy still have to be elaborated. Because the ECOWAS countries have close relations with the European Union (EU), it may be natural for them to look to the common agricultural policy of the EU for guidelines. Today, the EU is pressuring the ECOWAS countries to open their markets within the context of a European Partnership Agreement. However, the EU has itself created a highly protective farm policy that has pursued aims similar to those that the ECOWAS has now adopted. This policy has worked well for several decades. However, it also had significant shortcomings, with serious negative effects for European tax payers and for other countries. These shortcomings have induced policy changes that also explain the current position of the EU towards its West African partners. This paper surveys the history of the common agricultural policy of the EU so that farmers and policy makers of the ECOWAS can draw their own conclusions

N.B.J. Koning

Papers

Agriculture, development and international trade: Lessons to be learned from the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union