抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain—3-Dimensional Proportional System: An Approach to Cerebral Imaging, J. Talairach, P. Tournoux. Georg Thieme Verlag, New York (1988), 122 pp., 130 figs. DM 268

Behavioral scientists routinely publish broad claims about human psychology and behavior in the world's top journals based on samples drawn entirely from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies. Researchers - often implicitly - assume that either there is little variation across human populations, or that these "standard subjects" are as representative of the species as any other population. Are these assumptions justified? Here, our review of the comparative database from across the behavioral sciences suggests both that there is substantial variability in experimental results across populations and that WEIRD subjects are particularly unusual compared with the rest of the species - frequent outliers. The domains reviewed include visual perception, fairness, cooperation, spatial reasoning, categorization and inferential induction, moral reasoning, reasoning styles, self-concepts and related motivations, and the heritability of IQ. The findings suggest that members of WEIRD societies, including young children, are among the least representative populations one could find for generalizing about humans. Many of these findings involve domains that are associated with fundamental aspects of psychology, motivation, and behavior - hence, there are no obvious a priori grounds for claiming that a particular behavioral phenomenon is universal based on sampling from a single subpopulation. Overall, these empirical patterns suggests that we need to be less cavalier in addressing questions of human nature on the basis of data drawn from this particularly thin, and rather unusual, slice of humanity. We close by proposing ways to structurally re-organize the behavioral sciences to best tackle these challenges.

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The WEIRDest People in the World

Research on moral judgment has been dominated by rationalist models, in which moral judgment is thought to be caused by moral reasoning. The author gives 4 reasons for considering the hypothesis that moral reasoning does not cause moral judgment; rather, moral reasoning is usually a post hoc construction, generated after a judgment has been reached. The social intuitionist model is presented as an alternative to rationalist models. The model is a social model in that it deemphasizes the private reasoning done by individuals and emphasizes instead the importance of social and cultural influences. The model is an intuitionist model in that it states that moral judgment is generally the result of quick, automatic evaluations (intuitions). The model is more consistent than rationalist models with recent findings in social, cultural, evolutionary, and biological psychology, as well as in anthropology and primatology.

https://www.motherjones.com/files/emotional_dog_and_rational_tail.pdf

The emotional dog and its rational tail: a social intuitionist approach to moral judgment.

Numerous studies show that happy individuals are successful across multiple life domains, including marriage, friendship, income, work performance, and health. The authors suggest a conceptual model to account for these findings, arguing that the happiness-success link exists not only because success makes people happy, but also because positive affect engenders success. Three classes of evidence--crosssectional, longitudinal, and experimental--are documented to test their model. Relevant studies are described and their effect sizes combined meta-analytically. The results reveal that happiness is associated with and precedes numerous successful outcomes, as well as behaviors paralleling success. Furthermore, the evidence suggests that positive affect--the hallmark of well-being--may be the cause of many of the desirable characteristics, resources, and successes correlated with happiness. Limitations, empirical issues, and important future research questions are discussed.

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The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?

A meta-analysis was conducted on the accuracy of predictions of various objective outcomes in the areas of social and clinical psychology from short observations of expressive behavior (under 5 min) The overall effect size (/) for the accuracy of predictions for 38 different results was 39 Studies using longer periods of behavioral observation did not yield greater predictive accuracy; predictions based on observations under Vi min in length did not differ significantly from predictions based on 4- and 5-min observations The type of behavioral channel (such as the face, speech, the body, tone of voice) on which the ratings were based was not related to the accuracy of predictions Accuracy did not vary significantly between behaviors manipulated in a laboratory and more naturally occurring behavior Last, effect sizes did not differ significantly for predictions in the areas of clinical psychology, social psychology, and the accuracy of detecting deception The way in which people move, talk, and gesture—their facial expressions, posture, and speech—all contribute to the formation of impressions about them Many of the judgments we make about others in our everyday lives are based on cues from these expressive behaviors Gordon Allport (1937) believed that expressive behaviors were important indicators of personality and that impressions from brief interactions were often verified upon further acquaintance Allport and Vernon (1933) demonstrated that people's expressive styles were quite consistent across a variety of situations They then began to investigate the accuracy of perceivers' impressions that were based on observations of these expressive styles For reasons that have been discussed elsewhere, this issue—like other issues concerning the accuracy of interpersonal and social perception— was neglected for a long time (Funder, 1987; Kenny & Albright, 1987) Recently, however, there has been a resurgence of interest in the accuracy of social and interpersonal perception and judgment (Funder, 1987; Kenny & Albright, 1987; Kruglanski, 1989; Swann, 1984) and in the study of expressive behavior (Lippa, 1983; Riggio & Friedman, 1986) Recent work confirms earlier findings (Passini & Norman, 1966) that the ratings of strangers converge surprisingly well with self-ratings of personality by targets (Albright, Kenny, & Malloy, 1988; Funder & Cohan, 1988; Watson, 1989) This correspondence seems to confirm Gordon Allport's observation that there is something in the nature of individuals that

/pdf/thin-slices-of-expressive-behavior-as-predictors-of-3cie3zu256.pdf

Thin slices of expressive behavior as predictors of interpersonal consequences: A meta-analysis.

A meta-analysis examined emotion recognition within and across cultures. Emotions were universally recognized at better-than-chance levels. Accuracy was higher when emotions were both expressed and recognized by members of the same national, ethnic, or regional group, suggesting an in-group advantage. This advantage was smaller for cultural groups with greater exposure to one another, measured in terms of living in the same nation, physical proximity, and telephone communication. Majority group members were poorer at judging minority group members than the reverse. Cross-cultural accuracy was lower in studies that used a balanced research design, and higher in studies that used imitation rather than posed or spontaneous emotional expressions. Attributes of study design appeared not to moderate the size of the in-group advantage.

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On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: a meta-analysis.

Recent studies have documented that performance in a domain is hindered when individuals feel that a sociocultural group to which they belong is negatively stereotyped in that domain. We report that implicit activation of a social identity can facilitate as well as impede performance on a quantitative task. When a particular social identity was made salient at an implicit level, performance was altered in the direction predicted by the stereotype associated with the identity. Common cultural stereotypes hold that Asians have superior quantitative skills compared with other ethnic groups and that women have inferior quantitative skills compared with men. We found that Asian-American women performed better on a mathematics test when their ethnic identity was activated, but worse when their gender identity was activated, compared with a control group who had neither identity activated. Cross-cultural investigation indicated that it was the stereotype, and not the identity per se, that influenced performance.

http://disjointedthinking.jeffhughes.ca/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Shih-Pittinsky-Ambady-1999.-Stereotype-susceptibility-Identity-salience-and-shifts....pdf

Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance

The accuracy of strangers' consensual judgments of personality based on "thin slices" of targets' nonverbal behavior were examined in relation to an ecologically valid criterion variable. In the 1st study, consensual judgments of college teachers' molar nonverbal behavior based on very brief (under 30 s) silent video clips significantly predicted global end-of-semester student evaluations of teachers. In the 2nd study, similar judgments predicted a principal's ratings of high school teachers. In the 3rd study, ratings of even thinner slices (6-s and 15-s clips) were strongly related to the criterion variables. Ratings of specific micrononverbal behaviors and ratings of teachers' physical attractiveness were not as strongly related to the criterion variable. These findings have important implications for the areas of personality judgment, impression formation, and nonverbal behavior. The ability to form impressions of others is a critical human skill. "This remarkable capacity we possess to understand something of the character of another person, to form a conception of him as a human being. . . with particular characteristics forming a distinct individuality is a precondition of social life" (Asch, 1946, p. 258). In the present article, we show that this capacity is even more remarkable than Asch suggested: Our consensual impressions of others, even when based on very brief observations of nonverbal behavior, can sometimes be unexpectedly accurate. Kruglanski (1989) outlined the following definitions of the construct of accuracy in personality and social psychological research: (a) the degree of correspondence between a judgment and a criterion (the most popular definition in psychological research), (b) interpersonal consensus, and (c) a construct possessing pragmatic utility. Much of the recent research on impression formation and personality judgment has been focused on the second definition regarding interpersonal consensus among individuals in their judgments regarding the personality traits of others. This research has revealed three quite surprising findings regarding strangers' judgments of others. First, people can concur remarkably in some of their judgments of complete strangers, thus exhibiting high consensual accuracy (Albright, Kenny, & Malloy, 1988; Kenny, Homer, Kashy, & Chu, 1992; Paunonen, 1991). Second, these judgments can be

/pdf/half-a-minute-predicting-teacher-evaluations-from-thin-2kklc545fp.pdf

Half a minute: Predicting teacher evaluations from thin slices of nonverbal behavior and physical attractiveness.

Publisher Summary A thin slice is defined as “a brief excerpt of expressive behavior sampled from the behavioral stream.” Thin slices can be sampled from any available channel of communication—including the face, the body, speech, the voice, transcripts, or combinations of the above. The expressive behavior sampled is diagnostic of many affective, personalities, and interpersonal conditions. This chapter focuses on thin slices and illustrates the efficiency of thin slices in providing information about social and interpersonal relations. It discusses the cognitive and affective mechanisms that influence the processing of information from thin slices of the behavioral stream. Further, the chapter discusses the theoretical and methodological boundaries of thin-slice judgments. The chapter concludes with two newspaper accounts that illustrate the importance of the accurate communication and perception of thin slices. The ultimate goal of perception and judgment of thin slices of the behavioral stream is to understand the ways in which individuals come to know and negotiate their social environment.

Nalini Ambady

Papers

Thin slices of expressive behavior as predictors of interpersonal consequences: A meta-analysis.

On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: a meta-analysis.

Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance

Half a minute: Predicting teacher evaluations from thin slices of nonverbal behavior and physical attractiveness.

Toward a histology of social behavior: Judgmental accuracy from thin slices of the behavioral stream