Traditionally, discrimination has been understood as an active process, and a technology of its procedures has been developed and practiced extensively. Generalization, by contrast, has been considered the natural result of failing to practice a discrimination technology adequately, and thus has remained a passive concept almost devoid of a technology. But, generalization is equally deserving of an active conceptualization and technology. This review summarizes the structure of the generalization literature and its implicit embryonic technology, categorizing studies designed to assess or program generalization according to nine general headings: Train and Hope; Sequential Modification; Introduce to Natural Maintaining Contingencies; Train Sufficient Exemplars; Train Loosely; Use Indiscriminable Contingencies; Program Common Stimuli; Mediate Generalization; and Train “To Generalize”.

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An implicit technology of generalization.

A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Token economies have been applied in a wide range of settings. While there are several advantages to the use of this procedure, there are obstacles that may impede its implementation and therapeutic efficacy. These include: staff training, client resistance, circumvention of the contingencies, and non-responsiveness of subjects. Studies employing token programs with psychiatric patients, retardates, children in classroom settings, delinquents, and autistic children are reviewed. Although token economies are successful while in operation, the issue of generalization of behavior gains or resistance to extinction has not been given careful consideration. Inasmuch as generalization is perhaps the most crucial issue, several procedures are presented that are designed to facilitate maintenance of performance when reinforcement is withdrawn. Methodological suggestions for investigations on token reinforcement in applied settings are presented.

/pdf/the-token-economy-an-evaluative-review-2hh50e9594.pdf

The token economy: An evaluative review.

Interventions for boys with conduct problems: multiple settings, treatments, and criteria.

We conducted a meta-analysis of 99 studies that used interventions to decrease disruptive classroom behavior in public education settings. Due to the predominance of single-subject studies, we used...

A Meta-Analysis of Interventions To Decrease Disruptive Classroom Behavior in Public Education Settings.

Effects of three experimental and one control strategy were investigated in facilitating generalization and maintenance of treatment effects after two months in a token-economy classroom. At the conclusion of treatment, subjects were randomly assigned to one of three maintenance strategies or a control group and returned to their regular classrooms. The maintenance strategies were peer reprogramming, equating stimulus conditions between the experimental and regular classrooms, and teacher training in behavior management techniques. The maintenance strategies were implemented in the regular classroom for a two-month period and then terminated. Results indicated a powerful treatment effect produced by the token economy. Behavior maintenance effects following treatment were also obtained. The mean per cent appropriate behavior for the peer reprogramming and equating stimulus conditions strategies was significantly greater than the mean for the control subjects. The teacher training and control group means were not significantly different.

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED049592.pdf

Programming generalization and maintenance of treatment effects across time and across settings1

Individual conditioning techniques were applied in a controlled setting to increase attending behavior of an underachieving 9-yr-old male subject. The procedure involved: (1) determining a stable response pattern, (2) introducing a treatment variable to establish a high rate of task-attending behavior, (3) measuring the effect of withdrawal of the treatment variable after attaining criterion performance, and (4) transferring control to the classroom. The interval of attending behavior required for reinforcement was systematically increased from 30 sec to 600 sec as the behavior came under experimental control. Manipulating the reinforcing contingencies measurably changed the proportion of attending behavior and the frequency and duration of non-attending events. Once the behaviors were under experimental control, procedures were established to program generalization and to maintain the behavior outside the experimental setting.

/pdf/the-use-of-positive-reinforcement-in-conditioning-attending-4st9dc4tgi.pdf

The use of positive reinforcement in conditioning attending behavior.

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Modifying classroom behavior;: A manual of procedure for classroom teachers,

*Nancy Buckley is a school psychologist for the Engineered Learning Project, Department of Special Education, University of Oregon, Eugene. Robert L. Mattos, Ed.D., is a research fellow at the Bureau of Child Research, University of Kansas, and Parsons State Hospital and Training Center, Parsons, Kansas. Robert H. Mattson, Ed.D., is chairman of the Department of Speical Education, University of Oregon, Eugene. Hill M. Walker, Ph.D., is assistant professor, Department of Special Education, University of Oregon, Eugene. He is the author of a behavior rating scale, Walker Problem Behavior Identification Checklist for Children (Los Angeles, Calif.: Western Psychological Services, 1969)). T HE ACADEMIC and social bei haviors of children who function productively in a regular-classroom setting are ordinarily under the control of a wide variety of generalized reinforcers appropriate to that setting. Solving problems, completing assignments, and achieving success at academic endeavors generally function

Nancy K. Buckley

Papers

Programming generalization and maintenance of treatment effects across time and across settings1

The use of positive reinforcement in conditioning attending behavior.

Modifying classroom behavior;: A manual of procedure for classroom teachers,

Reinforcement and Aversive Control in the Modification of Behavior

Effects of Reinforcement, Punishment, and Feedback Upon Academic Response Rate.