Ever-increasing global energy consumption has driven the development of renewable energy technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. Battery energy storage systems (BESS) with high electrochemical performance are critical for enabling renewable yet intermittent sources of energy such as solar and wind. In recent years, numerous new battery technologies have been achieved and showed great potential for grid scale energy storage (GSES) applications. However, their practical applications have been greatly impeded due to the gap between the breakthroughs achieved in research laboratories and the industrial applications. In addition, various complex applications call for different battery performances. Matching of diverse batteries to various applications is required to promote practical energy storage research achievement. This review provides in-depth discussion and comprehensive consideration in the battery research field for GSES. The overall requirements of battery technologies for practical applications with key parameters are systematically analyzed by generating standards and measures for GSES. We also discuss recent progress and existing challenges for some representative battery technologies with great promise for GSES, including metal-ion batteries, lead-acid batteries, molten-salt batteries, alkaline batteries, redox-flow batteries, metal-air batteries, and hydrogen-gas batteries. Moreover, we emphasize the importance of bringing emerging battery technologies from academia to industry. Our perspectives on the future development of batteries for GSES applications are provided.

Rechargeable Batteries for Grid Scale Energy Storage.

Thermodynamic properties of calcium-magnesium alloys determined by emf measurements

Due to the widespread application of heavy metals in steel making, electronics, batteries, leather tanning, and catalysis, considerable toxic heavy metal-bearing wastewater and solid waste are dire...

Sustainable Electrochemical Extraction of Metal Resources from Waste Streams: From Removal to Recovery

Cross phenomena, representing responses of a system to external stimuli, are ubiquitous from quantum to macro scales. The Onsager theorem is often used to describe them, stating that the coefficient matrix of cross phenomena connecting the driving forces and the fluxes of internal processes is symmetric. Here we show that this matrix is intrinsically diagonal when the driving forces are chosen from the gradients of potentials that drive the fluxes of their respective conjugate molar quantities in the combined law of thermodynamics including the contributions from internal processes. Various cross phenomena are discussed in terms of the present theory. IMPACT STATEMENT Through flux equations based on the combined law of thermodynamics, theory of cross phenomena is developed and applied to thermoelectricity, thermodiffusion, diffusion, electromigration, electrocaloric and electromechanical effects, and thermal expansion.

Theory of cross phenomena and their coefficients beyond Onsager theorem

Thermodynamics and Kinetics Properties of Lanthanides (La, Ce, Pr, Nd) on Liquid Bismuth Electrode in LiCl-KCl Molten Salt

Electrochemical Separation of Barium into Liquid Bismuth by Controlling Deposition Potentials

Thermodynamic Properties of Strontium-Bismuth Alloys Determined by Electromotive Force Measurements

Electrochemical deposition of alkaline-earth elements (Sr and Ba) from LiCl-KCl-SrCl2-BaCl2 solution using a liquid bismuth electrode

Electrochemical studies of molten sulfates in LiCl-KCl-Na2SO4 at 700 °C

https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10095426

Nathan D. Smith

Papers

Electrochemical Separation of Barium into Liquid Bismuth by Controlling Deposition Potentials

Thermodynamic Properties of Strontium-Bismuth Alloys Determined by Electromotive Force Measurements

Electrochemical deposition of alkaline-earth elements (Sr and Ba) from LiCl-KCl-SrCl2-BaCl2 solution using a liquid bismuth electrode

Electrochemical studies of molten sulfates in LiCl-KCl-Na2SO4 at 700 °C

Influence of gaseous atmosphere on electrochemical behavior of nickel alloys in LiCl-KCl-Na2SO4 at 700 °C