Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) and its recent variant, naturalist developmental behavioral intervention (NDBI) aim to increase socialization and communication, and to decrease repetitive and challenging behaviors in preschool age autistic children. These behaviorist techniques are based on the precocity and intensity of the intervention, face-to-face interaction, errorless learning, and information fragmentation. Once considered to be “scientifically proven”, the efficacy of these approaches has been called into question in the last decade due to poor-quality data, small effects, low cost-efficiency, and the evolution of ethical and societal standards. Grounded on a reappraisal of the genetic and cognitive neuroscience of autism, we question three aspects of EIBI/NDBI: their focus on prerequisites for typical socio-communicative behaviors, their lack of consideration of autistic language development and learning modes, and their negative view of repetitive behaviors and restricted interests. We propose alternative predictions for empirical validation, based on the strengths of prototypical autistic children: (a) their non-verbal intelligence should be normally distributed and within the normal range; (b) improving access to non-communicative verbal and written auditory language material should favor their subsequent speech development and (c) decrease their problematic behavior; (d) lateral tutorship should increase the well-being of children and parents to a greater extent than personalized, face-to-face interventions by professionals; (e) admission to regular, but supervised daycare centers, combined with parental support and on-site crisis solving, represents a more cost-effective educational intervention than EIBI/NDBI.

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Should we change targets and methods of early intervention in autism, in favor of a strengths-based education?

Perceptual-Motor Behavior in Down Syndrome,

This systematic review aimed to investigate procedural learning across the lifespan in typical and atypical development. Procedural learning is essential for the development of everyday skills, including language and communication skills. Although procedural learning efficiency has been extensively studied, there is no consensus yet on potential procedural learning changes during development and ageing. Currently, three conflicting models regarding this trajectory exist: (1) a model of age invariance; (2a) a model with a peak in young adulthood; and (2b) a model with a plateau in childhood followed by a decline. The aims of this study were (1) to investigate this debate on procedural learning across the lifespan by systematically reviewing evidence for each model from studies using the serial reaction time task; and (2) to review procedural learning in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and specific language impairment (SLI), two developmental disorders characterized by deficits in communication skills, in the light of these models. Our findings on typical development strongly support a model of age-related changes (Model 2a or 2b) and show that mixed findings regarding the developmental trajectory during childhood can be explained by methodological differences across studies. Applying these conclusions to systematic reviews of studies of ASD and SLI makes it clear that there is a strong need for the inclusion of multiple age groups in these clinical studies to model procedural learning in atypical development. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed. Future research should focus on the role of declarative learning in both typical and atypical development.

Procedural learning across the lifespan: A systematic review with implications for atypical development.

O Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA) e uma desordem do desenvolvimento neurologico caracterizada principalmente por deficits na interacao social, comunicacao e aprendizagem de habilidades implicitas. OBJETIVO: Analisar os resultados da pesquisa sobre "aprendizagem motora" e suas formas de mensurar na "desordem autista". METODOS: Uma pesquisa bibliografica sistematica foi feita usando Medline/PubMed, Web of Science, BVS (biblioteca virtual de saude) e PsycINFO. Incluimos artigos que mostraram as palavras-chave "autismo" e "aprendizagem motora". As variaveis consideradas foram os aspectos metodologicos; os resultados apresentados e a qualidade metodologica dos estudos. RESULTADOS: Um total de 42 artigos foram identificados; foram excluidos 33 artigos porque nao atendiam aos criterios de inclusao. Os dados foram extraidos de nove estudos elegiveis e resumidos. CONCLUSAO: Concluimos que, embora as pessoas com TEA tenham demonstrado dificuldades de desempenho em diferentes tarefas de aprendizagem motora de memoria, a aquisicao de habilidades ocorre nessa populacao; No entanto, essa aquisicao de habilidades esta relacionada a eventos heterogeneos, ocorrendo sem a consciencia dos individuos.

http://www.scielo.br/pdf/dn/v11n3/1980-5764-dn-11-03-0276.pdf

Motor learning characterization in people with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review.

Digital educational games research tends to lack ecological validity by not adequately taking into account the views and perspectives of children and young people with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In technology applications for autism there is also a focus mostly on learning of social communication rather than academic subjects. This paper is a pilot study that explores the potential of including the views and perspectives of people with autism by analysing an academic-based educational game that was co-designed with and for young people with ASD. The serious game aims to help the players learn Geography-specific knowledge and integrates several strategic features so that users can collaborate together against the computer or compete against each other. The educational game was evaluated over five sessions by three peer teams from two different special educational institutions, involving a total of six students with ASD. The participants were positive about their enjoyment and motivation as well as social engagement. The results showed that the players’ level of competitiveness not only influenced the experience within the game but also the interaction within the peer teams. The game mechanisms did help the participants with ASD increase their knowledge in Geography content. The main conclusion is that there are considerable benefits of including children with ASD in the design process and future research should explore more fully how their involvement can enhance curriculum-based learning as well as social engagement within the classroom.

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Outcomes for design and learning when teenagers with autism codesign a serious game: a pilot study

Implicit and explicit motor learning: Application to children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

The purpose of the present study was to explore explicit and implicit motor sequence learning in 24 children with Down’s syndrome (DS) and 24 matched typically developing (TD) children using a serial reaction time (SRT) task with both random and regular trials. The intervention was consisted of 10 stages (8 blocks for acquisition and 2 blocks for retention) in which the performances of groups were compared. In acquisition phase, our results showed a progress in the performance of SRT task in all groups while performing the SRT task. In addition, in retention phase, the results showed that children with DS succeed as well as TD children at the implicit motor sequence learning task. There were no significant differences between groups. But there was a significant difference between groups for explicit learning and the group of TD explicit children showed a reliable sequence learning pattern compared to DS children. These results are in line with the cognitive and motor features of the DS children and suggest that implicit motor learning is intact in children with DS but explicit motor learning seems to be impaired in these children. Nevertheless, this article provides preliminary data regarding implicit learning in DS children and further empirical research is needed to provide more meticulous and logical explanations. From a practical view, we suggest that during the education and rehabilitation interventions to children with DS, we can make use the benefits of implicit learning, because these children can learn skills implicitly.

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Explicit and implicit motor sequence learning: motor learning analysis in children with Down syndrome. [Aprendizaje explícito e implícito de la secuencia motora: análisis del aprendizaje motor en niños con síndrome de Down].

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to develop an Iranian Hand writing Speed Test (I-CHST) for testing of Iranian students aged 8-12. To date, no norms of handwriting speed have been published for hand-writing speed of the Iranian students. Methods: A sample of 400 typically developing Iranian students across four age cohorts was recruited. Among those 400 students 50% were girls and 50% were boys. 73% were studding at government schools and 27% were from the private schools. 79% were right handed and 11% were left handed. The results showed that the handwriting speed assessment test has excellent inter-rater reliability (r=1, p=0.000) and construct validity (r=0.798, p=0.000). Results: The findings showed that handwriting speed increases with age and the rate of increase was found to be greatest among Iranian children aged 8-12. It is also found that the girls aged 11-12 wrote faster than boys of the same age. Discussion: Based on this research, I-CHST was a valid and reliable test for testing the hand writing speed in Iranian children and it could be used for testing or intervention purposes by the therapists at clinics.

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Negar Miri-Lavasani

Papers

Implicit and explicit motor learning: Application to children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

Explicit and implicit motor sequence learning: motor learning analysis in children with Down syndrome. [Aprendizaje explícito e implícito de la secuencia motora: análisis del aprendizaje motor en niños con síndrome de Down].

Inter-Intra Rater Reliability, Construct and Discriminative Validity of Iranian Typically Developing Children Handwriting Speed Test (I-CHST)