This review provides an opportunity to assess the current state of gang research and suggest directions for its future. There has been a dramatic increase in research on gangs, gang members, and gang behavior since the early 1990s, making this review especially timely. We use Short’s three-level framework of explanation to organize the findings of prior research, focusing on individual-, micro-, and macro-level research. Attention is focused on the findings of such research, but we also examine theoretical and methodological developments as well. Drawing from Short and life-course research, we introduce a cross-level temporal framework to guide future directions in gang research.

What Do We Know About Gangs and Gang Members and Where Do We Go From Here

Review of: The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 White, Richard

https://pubs.lib.uiowa.edu/annals-of-iowa/article/7831/galley/116549/download/

The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815

Portland : planning, politics, and growth in a twentieth-century city

Authentic Indians: Episodes of Encounter from the Late-Nineteenth-Century Northwest Coast

“A Final Promise has been a very lucky book,” writes Frederick E. Hoxie in his 2001 preface to the Bison Books paperback edition of a work first published in 1984. “Not only did it find an audience that has sustained it for nearly two decades, but it also caught the attention of thoughtful reviewers who have helped identify and illuminate the text’s central themes” (ix). In my opinion luck had little to do with it. A Final Promise was, and remains an impressive scholarly achievement, based on deep and wide research, its arguments expressed with power and clarity. Eighteen years after publication I would still—but not unreservedly—recommend it as a major contribution to the field of Native American studies. Hoxie, director of the D’Arcy McNickle Center for the history of the American Indian at the Newberry Library, Chicago, has produced a careful analysis of the ambitious campaign, intensifying in the 1880s and persisting through the 1920s, to assimilate Indian people into American society. Unlike historians such as myself and Francis Paul Prucha, however, who see much continuity in the attitudes and goals of policy reformers, educators, and concerned politicians across four decades, Hoxie argues that deep changes occurred around 1900. Until then, he believes, these “friends of the Indian” combined an ethnocentric intolerance of tribal cultures with a racially optimistic belief in the capacity of the people for complete assimilation. Allotment of tribal lands, education comparable to that received by white children, and the privileges and responsibilities of full citizenship, these would transform Indians into Americans. After 1900 in Hoxie’s view—maintained in his new preface—a deepening pessimism took hold, causing many Americans to lose faith in the potential of Indians and other “backward” peoples to attain full equality with whites. The effects of this mounting racial pessimism were complex and sometimes contradictory. Ultimately the results for Indians were devastating: escalating land losses, lowered educational expectations as government Indian schools emphasized vocational training at the expense of an academic curriculum, and political marginalization as a colonized people—citizens, to be sure, but simultaneously wards of the nation. “The optimistic expectations of the 1880s by now were long forgotten,” writes Hoxie. “Assimilation no longer meant full citizenship and equality. Instead the term now implied that Indians would remain on the periphery of American society, ruled by outsiders who promised to guide them towards ‘civilization’” (241). With a wonderful sense of cultural crosscurrents, Hoxie draws on legal decisions, contemporaneous anthropology, popular writers, the representation of Indians in world fairs, such as Chicago’s Columbian Exposition of 1892, federal and local politics,

A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (review)

Since its emergence over thir ty y ears ago , the New Indian history has had a tremendous impact on studies of Native peoples in North America. Nonetheless, in cr ucial ways and for various reasons, scholarship on American Indians often remains isolated from larger currents of North American history. Just over the last decade, a handful of works have built on the foundations of the New Indian history and more consciously put American Indians into wide ranging conversations about North American culture and society. It is this current wave of scholarship that holds the most promise for moving the study of American Indians beyond the New Indian history and into an even more fruitful period where the connections between the experiences of American Indians and those of other North Americans draw increasing interest and examination. It has now been thirty years since the emergence of the New Indian history. Grounded in the rise of social history, the growing interest in race and ethnicity, and the dramatic resurgence of Native people into the national spotlight, the New Indian history marked the first time that historians began taking American Indians seriously. The studies of Indian wars and United States-Indian relations that had up to then constituted written Indian history – and which cast Native people as savages, noble or otherwise, swept aside by the forces of Euro-American progress – were joined by works that sought Indian perspectives, stressed Indian agency, and took a critical view of U.S. colonialism. Perhaps most importantly, the New Indian history legitimated the study of Native peoples within the historical profession by arguing that without considering American Indians, one could not understand the development of North America. 1 The energy that drove this movement was palpable, especially at such annual conferences as the American Society for Ethnohistory (ASE) and the Western History Association (WHA), the New Indian history’s most fertile venues. When prodded, a few seasoned scholars might even recount how the work of the meetings often spilled, at times raucously, into the host cities’ bars and hotel rooms. Altogether, it seemed a movement fit for a generation raised in an atmosphere of social protest

Beyond the New Indian History: Recent Trends in the Historiography on the Native Peoples of North America

The experiences of Northwest Coast artists show how Indigenous peoples have confronted a past marked by conquest and the importance of urban areas for these purposes Benefiting from the “Northwest

Indigenizing Urban Landscapes: Northwest Coast Artists and Cities in the Late Twentieth Century:

:Native Hubs: Culture, Community, and Belonging in Silicon Valley and Beyond

This article examines the processes of community building among American Indians who migrated to Portland, Oregon, in the decades following World War II, contextualized within a larger movement of Indians
 to the cities of the United States and shifts in government relations with Indian people. It argues that, during the 1960s, working-and middle-class Indians living in Portland came together and formed groups
 that enabled them to cultivate "Indianness" or to "be Indian" in the city. As the decade wore on, Indian migration to Portland increased, the social problems of urban Indians became more visible, and a
 younger generation emerged to challenge the leadership of Portland9s established Indian organizations. Influenced by both their college educations and a national Indian activist movement, these new leaders
 promoted a repositioning of Indianness, taking Indian identity as the starting point from which to solve urban Indian problems. By the mid-1970s, the younger generation of college-educated Indians gained
 a government mandate and ascended to the helm of Portland9s Indian community. In winning support from local, state, and federal officials, these leaders reflected fundamental changes under way in the administration
 of U.S. Indian affairs not only in Portland, but also across the country.

Nicolas G. Rosenthal

Papers

Beyond the New Indian History: Recent Trends in the Historiography on the Native Peoples of North America

Indigenizing Urban Landscapes: Northwest Coast Artists and Cities in the Late Twentieth Century:

:Native Hubs: Culture, Community, and Belonging in Silicon Valley and Beyond

Repositioning Indianness: Native American Organizations in Portland, Oregon, 1959––1975

Post-Ghetto: Reimagining South Los Angeles