Estimates of the amount of water outgassed from Mars, based on the composition of the atmosphere, range from 6 to 160 m, as compared with 3 km for the Earth. In contrast, large flood features, valley networks, and several indicators of ground ice suggest that at least 500 m of water have outgassed. The two sets of estimates may be reconciled if early in its history, Mars lost part of its atmosphere by impact erosion and hydrodynamic escape.

Water on Mars

Lunar sourcebook. A user's guide to the moon

The Mars 2020 mission will seek the signs of ancient life on Mars and will identify, prepare, document, and cache a set of samples for possible return to Earth by a follow-on mission. Mars 2020 and its Perseverance rover thus link and further two long-held goals in planetary science: a deep search for evidence of life in a habitable extraterrestrial environment, and the return of martian samples to Earth for analysis in terrestrial laboratories. The Mars 2020 spacecraft is based on the design of the highly successful Mars Science Laboratory and its Curiosity rover, but outfitted with a sophisticated suite of new science instruments. Ground-penetrating radar will illuminate geologic structures in the shallow subsurface, while a multi-faceted weather station will document martian environmental conditions. Several instruments can be used individually or in tandem to map the color, texture, chemistry, and mineralogy of rocks and regolith at the meter scale and at the submillimeter scale. The science instruments will be used to interpret the geology of the landing site, to identify habitable paleoenvironments, to seek ancient textural, elemental, mineralogical and organic biosignatures, and to locate and characterize the most promising samples for Earth return. Once selected, ∼35 samples of rock and regolith weighing about 15 grams each will be drilled directly into ultraclean and sterile sample tubes. Perseverance will also collect blank sample tubes to monitor the evolving rover contamination environment. In addition to its scientific instruments, Perseverance hosts technology demonstrations designed to facilitate future Mars exploration. These include a device to generate oxygen gas by electrolytic decomposition of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and a small helicopter to assess performance of a rotorcraft in the thin martian atmosphere. Mars 2020 entry, descent, and landing (EDL) will use the same approach that successfully delivered Curiosity to the martian surface, but with several new features that enable the spacecraft to land at previously inaccessible landing sites. A suite of cameras and a microphone will for the first time capture the sights and sounds of EDL. Mars 2020’s landing site was chosen to maximize scientific return of the mission for astrobiology and sample return. Several billion years ago Jezero crater held a 40 km diameter, few hundred-meter-deep lake, with both an inflow and an outflow channel. A prominent delta, fine-grained lacustrine sediments, and carbonate-bearing rocks offer attractive targets for habitability and for biosignature preservation potential. In addition, a possible volcanic unit in the crater and impact megabreccia in the crater rim, along with fluvially-deposited clasts derived from the large and lithologically diverse headwaters terrain, contribute substantially to the science value of the sample cache for investigations of the history of Mars and the Solar System. Even greater diversity, including very ancient aqueously altered rocks, is accessible in a notional rover traverse that ascends out of Jezero crater and explores the surrounding Nili Planum. Mars 2020 is conceived as the first element of a multi-mission Mars Sample Return campaign. After Mars 2020 has cached the samples, a follow-on mission consisting of a fetch rover and a rocket could retrieve and package them, and then launch the package into orbit. A third mission could capture the orbiting package and return it to Earth. To facilitate the sample handoff, Perseverance could deposit its collection of filled sample tubes in one or more locations, called depots, on the planet’s surface. Alternatively, if Perseverance remains functional, it could carry some or all the samples directly to the retrieval spacecraft. The Mars 2020 mission and its Perseverance rover launched from the Eastern Range at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, on July 30, 2020. Landing at Jezero Crater will occur on Feb 18, 2021 at about 12:30 PM Pacific Time.

Mars 2020 Mission Overview

Lacking plate tectonics and crustal recycling, the long-term evolution of the crust-mantle system of Mars is driven by mantle convection, partial melting, and silicate differentiation. Volcanic landforms such as lava flows, shield volcanoes, volcanic cones, pyroclastic deposits, and dikes are observed on the martian surface, and while activity was widespread during the late Noachian and Hesperian, volcanism became more and more restricted to the Tharsis and Elysium provinces in the Amazonian period. Martian igneous rocks are predominantly basaltic in composition, and remote sensing data, in-situ data, and analysis of the SNC meteorites indicate that magma source regions were located at depths between 80 and 150 km, with degrees of partial melting ranging from 5 to 15 %. Furthermore, magma storage at depth appears to be of limited importance, and secular cooling rates of 30 to 40 K Gyr−1 were derived from surface chemistry for the Hesperian and Amazonian periods. These estimates are in general agreement with numerical models of the thermo-chemical evolution of Mars, which predict source region depths of 100 to 200 km, degrees of partial melting between 5 and 20 %, and secular cooling rates of 40 to 50 K Gyr−1. In addition, these model predictions largely agree with elastic lithosphere thickness estimates derived from gravity and topography data. Major unknowns related to the evolution of the crust-mantle system are the age of the shergottites, the planet’s initial bulk mantle water content, and its average crustal thickness. Analysis of the SNC meteorites, estimates of the elastic lithosphere thickness, as well as the fact that tidal dissipation takes place in the martian mantle indicate that rheologically significant amounts of water of a few tens of ppm are still present in the interior. However, the exact amount is controversial and estimates range from only a few to more than 200 ppm. Owing to the uncertain formation age of the shergottites it is unclear whether these water contents correspond to the ancient or present mantle. It therefore remains to be investigated whether petrologically significant amounts of water of more than 100 ppm are or have been present in the deep interior. Although models suggest that about 50 % of the incompatible species (H2O, K, Th, U) have been removed from the mantle, the amount of mantle differentiation remains uncertain because the average crustal thickness is merely constrained to within a factor of two.

/pdf/long-term-evolution-of-the-martian-crust-mantle-system-2dapayihpm.pdf

Long-Term Evolution of the Martian Crust-Mantle System

The High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) of Mars Express and its approach to science analysis and mapping for Mars and its satellites

Returning samples from Mars to Earth for scientific analysis has been, and continues to be, among the highest priority objectives of planetary science. Partly for this reason, the 2011 Planetary Science Decadal Survey placed high priority on a proposed 2018 rover mission that would conduct careful in situ science and use that scientific information to select and cache samples that could be returned to Earth by a potential future mission. In order to ensure that the potential contributions of the 2018 rover to the proposed MSR Campaign are properly planned, this study was undertaken to consider the science of the MSR Campaign concept from end to end. This white paper is the principal output of the Mars Sample Return (MSR) End-to-End International Science Analysis Group (E2E-iSAG): a group chartered by MEPAG (Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group).

/pdf/planning-for-mars-returned-sample-science-final-report-of-2m1t03nv78.pdf

Planning for mars returned sample science: Final report of the MSR end-to-end international science analysis group (E2E-iSAG)

Using virtual reality to investigate geological outcrops on planetary surfaces

W. Rapin, G. Dromart, D. Rubin, L. Le Deit, N. Mangold, V. Fox, O. Gasnault, K. Herkenhoff, S. Le Mouélic, J.L. Dickson, B.L. Ehlmann, S. Maurice, R.C. Wiens , L.A. Edgar, R.B. Anderson. Caltech-GPS, wrapin@caltech.edu; Univ. Lyon, LGLTPE, France; University of California, Santa Cruz; LPG, CNRS-Univ. Nantes, France ; IRAP-OMP, CNRS-UPS, Toulouse, France; Astrogeology Science Center, USGS, Flagstaff; LANL.

Nicolas Mangold

Papers

Planning for mars returned sample science: Final report of the MSR end-to-end international science analysis group (E2E-iSAG)

Using virtual reality to investigate geological outcrops on planetary surfaces

Predicting changes in depositional environments up Mount Sharp stratigraphy