The Basidiomycota constitutes a major phylum of the kingdom Fungi and is second in species numbers to the Ascomycota. The present work provides an overview of all validly published, currently used basidiomycete genera to date in a single document. An outline of all genera of Basidiomycota is provided, which includes 1928 currently used genera names, with 1263 synonyms, which are distributed in 241 families, 68 orders, 18 classes and four subphyla. We provide brief notes for each accepted genus including information on classification, number of accepted species, type species, life mode, habitat, distribution, and sequence information. Furthermore, three phylogenetic analyses with combined LSU, SSU, 5.8s, rpb1, rpb2, and ef1 datasets for the subphyla Agaricomycotina, Pucciniomycotina and Ustilaginomycotina are conducted, respectively. Divergence time estimates are provided to the family level with 632 species from 62 orders, 168 families and 605 genera. Our study indicates that the divergence times of the subphyla in Basidiomycota are 406–430 Mya, classes are 211–383 Mya, and orders are 99–323 Mya, which are largely consistent with previous studies. In this study, all phylogenetically supported families were dated, with the families of Agaricomycotina diverging from 27–178 Mya, Pucciniomycotina from 85–222 Mya, and Ustilaginomycotina from 79–177 Mya. Divergence times as additional criterion in ranking provide additional evidence to resolve taxonomic problems in the Basidiomycota taxonomic system, and also provide a better understanding of their phylogeny and evolution.

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Notes, outline and divergence times of Basidiomycota

Nutritional composition and nutraceutical properties of the Pleurotus fruiting bodies: Potential use as food ingredient

Ethnomedicinal uses, pharmacological activities, and cultivation of Lignosus spp. (tiger׳s milk mushrooms) in Malaysia - A review.

Filamentous fungi possess the extraordinary ability to digest complex biomasses and mineralize numerous xenobiotics, as consequence of their aptitude to sensing the environment and regulating their intra and extra cellular proteins, producing drastic changes in proteome and secretome composition. Recent advancement in proteomic technologies offers an exciting opportunity to reveal the fluctuations of fungal proteins and enzymes, responsible for their metabolic adaptation to a large variety of environmental conditions. Here, an overview of the most commonly used proteomic strategies will be provided; this paper will range from sample preparation to gel-free and gel-based proteomics, discussing pros and cons of each mentioned state-of-the-art technique. The main focus will be kept on filamentous fungi. Due to the biotechnological relevance of lignocellulose degrading fungi, special attention will be finally given to their extracellular proteome, or secretome. Secreted proteins and enzymes will be discussed in relation to their involvement in bio-based processes, such as biomass deconstruction and mycoremediation.

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/16/3/5803/pdf

Methodologies and Perspectives of Proteomics Applied to Filamentous Fungi: From Sample Preparation to Secretome Analysis

The soil microbe Corynebacterium glutamicum is a leading workhorse in industrial biotechnology and has become famous for its power to synthetise amino acids and a range of bulk chemicals at high titre and yield. The product portfolio of the microbe is continuously expanding. Moreover, metabolically engineered strains of C. glutamicum produce more than 30 high value active ingredients, including signature molecules of raspberry, savoury, and orange flavours, sun blockers, anti-ageing sugars, and polymers for regenerative medicine. Herein, we highlight recent advances in engineering of the microbe into novel cell factories that overproduce these precious molecules from pioneering proofs-of-concept up to industrial productivity.

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Advances in metabolic engineering of Corynebacterium glutamicum to produce high-value active ingredients for food, feed, human health, and well-being.

Tiger’s milk mushroom is known for its valuable medicinal properties, especially the tuber part. However, wild tuber is very hard to obtain as it grows underground. This study first aimed to cultivate tiger’s milk mushroom tuber through a cultivation technique, and second to compare nutritional and mycochemical contents, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities and compound screening of the cultivated tuber with the wild tuber. Results showed an increase in carbohydrate content by 45.81% and protein content by 123.68% in the cultivated tuber while fat content reduced by 13.04%. Cultivated tuber also showed an increase of up to 64.21% for total flavonoid-like compounds and 62.51% of total β-d-glucan compared to the wild tuber. The antioxidant activity of cultivated tuber and wild tuber was 760 and 840 µg mL−1, respectively. The cytotoxic activity of boiled water extract of cultivated tuber against a human lung cancer cell line (A549) was 65.50 ± 2.12 µg mL−1 and against a human breast cancer cell line (MCF7) was 19.35 ± 0.11 µg mL−1. β-d-glucan extract from the purification of boiled water extract of cultivated tuber showed cytotoxic activity at 57.78 ± 2.29 µg mL−1 against A549 and 33.50 ± 1.41 µg mL−1 against MCF7. However, the β-glucan extract from wild tuber did not show a cytotoxic effect against either the A549 or MCF7 cell lines. Also, neither of the extracts from cultivated tuber and wild tuber showed an effect against a normal cell line (MRC5). Compound profiling through by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS) showed the appearance of new compounds in the cultivated tuber. In conclusion, our cultivated tuber of tiger’s milk mushroom using a new recipe cultivation technique showed improved nutrient and bioactive compound contents, and antioxidant and cytotoxic activities compared to the wild tuber. Further investigations are required to obtain a better quality of cultivated tuber.

Comparative nutritional and mycochemical contents, biological activities and LC/MS screening of tuber from new recipe cultivation technique with wild type tuber of tiger's milk mushroom of species Lignosus rhinocerus

Background: Termitomyces heimii is a basidiomycete fungus that has a symbiotic relationship with termites, and it is an edible mushroom with a unique flavour and texture. T. heimii is also one of the most difficult mushrooms to cultivate throughout the world. Little is known about the growth and development of these mushrooms, and the available information is insufficient or poor. The purpose of this study was to provide a base of knowledge regarding the biological processes involved in the development of T. heimii. The proteomic method of 2 dimensional difference gel electrophoresis 2D-DIGE was used to determine and examine the protein profiles of each developmental stage (mycelium, primordium and fruiting body). Total proteins were extracted by TCA-acetone precipitation. Results: A total of 271 protein spots were detected by electrophoresis covering pH 3–10 and 10–250 kDa. Selected protein spots were subjected to mass spectrometric analyses with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation (MALDI TOF/TOF). Nineteen protein spots were identified based on peptide mass fingerprinting by matching peptide fragments to the NCBI non-redundant database using MASCOT software. The 19 protein spots were categorised into four major groups through KEGG pathway analysis ,a s follows: carbohydrate metabolism, energy metabolism, amino acid metabolism and response to environmental stress. Conclusions: The results from our study show that there is a clear correlation betwee nt he changes in protein expression that occur during different developmental stages. Enzymes related to cell wall synthesis were most highly expressed during fruiting body formation compared to the mycelium and primordial stages. Moreover, enzymes involved in cell wall component degradation were up-regulated in the earlier stages of mushroom development.

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Comparative proteomic analysis of different developmental stages of the edible mushroom Termitomyces heimii

Lentinan, 1152 Dalton β-D-glucan found in Shiitake Mushroom (Lentinus edodes), has been claimed to have anticancer and immunomodulatory activity. Several extraction methods have been used by researchers to isolate Lentinan including hot water and alkaline solution (1.25 M NaOH). In this study, hot water and alkaline solution (1.25 M NaOH) were used to extract the Lentinan-like β-D-glucan (1151 Dalton) from Tiger’s Milk Mushroom, Termite Mushroom, and selected local market mushrooms. The isolated Lentinan-like β-D-glucan from both hot water and alkaline solution was analyzed by LCMS-QTOF. Commercial Lentinan standard from Lentinus edodes was used as a reference. The results showed significant differences on chromatogram patterns of Lentinan-like β-D-glucan between both extracts. The peak of Lentinan-like β-D-glucan was only found in isolated polysaccharide glucan of hot water extracts. The isolated polysaccharide glucans from Tiger’s Milk Mushroom and Termite Mushroom were found to have μg/mg and μg/mg Lentinan-like β-D-glucan. Button Mushroom, Shiitake Mushroom, and Oyster Mushroom showed the presence of Lentinan-like β-D-glucan at μg/mg, , and μg/mg, respectively.

https://downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2013/718963.pdf

LCMS-QTOF Determination of Lentinan-Like β-D-Glucan Content Isolated by Hot Water and Alkaline Solution from Tiger’s Milk Mushroom, Termite Mushroom, and Selected Local Market Mushrooms

Wax apple is one of the underutilized fruits that is considered a good source of fibers, vitamins, minerals as well as antioxidants. In this study, a comparative analysis of the developments of wax fruit ripening at the proteomic and metabolomic level was reported. 2D electrophoresis coupled with MALDI-TOF/TOF was used to compare the proteome profile from three developmental stages named immature, young, and mature fruits. In general, the protein expression profile and the identified proteins function were discussed for their potential roles in fruit physiological development and ripening processes. The metabolomic investigation was also performed on the same samples using quadrupole LC-MS (LC-QTOF/MS). Roles of some of the differentially expressed proteins and metabolites are discussed in relation to wax apple ripening during the development. This is the first study investigating the changes in the proteins and metabolites in wax apple at different developmental stages. The information obtained from this research will be helpful in developing biomarkers for breeders and help the plant researchers to avoid wax apple cultivation problems such as fruit cracking.

Proteomic and metabolomic study of wax apple (Syzygium samarangense) fruit during ripening process

Lentinan, a complex polysaccharides β-D-glucan found in Shiitake Mushroom has been known to have medicinal effect such as anticancer and immune-modulatory properties. Analysis on lentinan through application of high-end biotechnology instrument such as mass spectrometry is still limited. In this study, Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry-Quadropole Time of Flight (LC/MS Q-TOF) has been used to optimize the MS/MS response in elucidating the lentinan characteristics. Analysis was done by using lentinan standard at different concentrations through different combinations of four types of columns and four types of buffers. Four levels of MS/MS collision energies or known as Collision Induced Dissociation (CID) were applied. Data presented shown that the optimum MS/MS CID that generated all six product ion of lentinan at the most combinations of column and buffer was at 20.0 V. Combination of Altima Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography (HILIC) column without any buffer in mobile phase (AH; NB) and Hypercarb column with the present of 0.1% acetic acid in mobile phase (TH; 0.1% AA) respectively were found to be the best combinations among other combinations as these combinations were able to generate product ions of lentinan at lentinan concentration as low as 0.156 mg/mL. This suggested that these column and buffer combinations have given good sensitivity to enhance peak efficiency of lentinan at low concentration which was required to meet MS/MS abundance threshold. As the conclusion, suitable combinations of column and buffer are crucial in order to enhance peak efficiency of lentinan at optimum ionization intensity to allow optimum MS/MS responses for elucidation of their structure characteristics. Determination of appropriate collision energy also plays an important role to generate MS/MS spectra of all product ions for the lentinan.

https://www.longdom.org/open-access/liquid-chromatography-msms-responses-on-lentinan-for-structure-characterization-of-mushroom-polysaccharide-dglucan-2157-7064.1000260.pdf

Nor Azreen Mohd Jamil

Papers

Comparative nutritional and mycochemical contents, biological activities and LC/MS screening of tuber from new recipe cultivation technique with wild type tuber of tiger's milk mushroom of species Lignosus rhinocerus

Comparative proteomic analysis of different developmental stages of the edible mushroom Termitomyces heimii

LCMS-QTOF Determination of Lentinan-Like β-D-Glucan Content Isolated by Hot Water and Alkaline Solution from Tiger’s Milk Mushroom, Termite Mushroom, and Selected Local Market Mushrooms

Proteomic and metabolomic study of wax apple (Syzygium samarangense) fruit during ripening process

Liquid Chromatography MS/MS Responses on Lentinan for Structure Characterization of Mushroom Polysaccharide β-D-Glucan