Historically, education goals have tended to fluctuate from emphasis solely on cognitive outcomes to major concern with social and affective ones. The emphasis on achievement and the "cult of efficiency" (Callahan, 1962) early in this century was followed by a shift in the 1930's to the comprehensive high school with its social and affective concerns (cf. the Eight Year Study, Aikin, 1942). Then Sputnik initiated a rapid and dramatic reemphasis on cognitive outcomes (Bruner, 1960) from which the current trend seems to be moving in its emphasis on "humanistic" aspects of education. The sharp increase in the number of studies on self-concept is one reflection of the reemphasis on noncognitive outcomes of education. (For references to current educational studies, see reviews by Coller, 1971; Purkey, 1970; Yamamoto, 1972; Zirkel, 1971.) Another symptom of this shift has taken the form of increased concern with enhancing the child's self-concept, espe-

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Self-Concept: Validation of Construct Interpretations

Toward a theory of organizational socialization

This study suggests that there are sex differences in vocational attitude maturity. In the four-school stratified sample of eleventh grade boys and girls studied, the girls scored significantly higher than the boys in vocational attitude. No sex differences in overall level of self-esteem, as measured by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, were found. For both sexes a significant relationship between the over all level of self-esteem and vocational attitude maturity was indicated, with the relationship being higher for males than for females. The self-concept variables of self-satisfaction, family, and moral-ethical self were found to contribute to the vocational attitude maturity of males. For females, the self-concept variables of identity and moral-ethical self contributed to their vocational attitude maturity.

Sex Differences in

Circumscription and Compromise: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations.

This study examined the relationship between proactive personality and career success by surveying a sample of 496 employees (320 men and 176 women) from a diverse set of occupations and organizations. Proactive personality was positively associated with both self-reported objective (salary and promotions) and subjective (career satisfaction) indicators of career success. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that proactive personality explained additional variance in both objective and subjective career success even after controlling for several relevant variables (demographic, human capital, motivational, organizational, and industry) that have previously been found to be predictive of career outcomes. These findings were consistent using both self-report and significant--other ratings of proactive personality.

Proactive personality and career success.

Career Development: Self-Concept Theory

Self-concept theory is designed to predict the occupation chosen by the subject. The developing or maturing individual is reacting to environmental stimuli in a manner characteristic of his own formulation of the nature of the environment and of himself. The way in which the person has reacted in the past, constructing his formulation of the world, determines his future and his choice of occupation as part of that future. One can view vocational choice as an expression of self concepts formulated and reformulated throughout the life stages. People differ in their self concepts and in the ways in which they translate self concepts into occupational terms. People choose different occupations. Implicit in the central idea of translation is recognition, for purposes of analysis, of two realms or languages: an area of psychological statements and an area of occupational terms. Self concepts being expressible in psychological terms consist of all statements in psychological terms that the subject is willing to make about him or others. A person's understanding of himself cannot develop without comparison and contrast with others.

Norman Matlin

Papers

Career Development: Self-Concept Theory

A Model for the Translation of Self Concepts into Vocational Terms