Examination of the vaccine strategies and technical platforms used for the COVID-19 pandemic in the context of those used for previous emerging and reemerging infectious diseases and pandemics may offer some mutually beneficial lessons. The unprecedented scale and rapidity of dissemination of recent emerging infectious diseases pose new challenges for vaccine developers, regulators, health authorities and political constituencies. Vaccine manufacturing and distribution are complex and challenging. While speed is essential, clinical development to emergency use authorization and licensure, pharmacovigilance of vaccine safety and surveillance of virus variants are also critical. Access to vaccines and vaccination needs to be prioritized in low- and middle-income countries. The combination of these factors will weigh heavily on the ultimate success of efforts to bring the current and any future emerging infectious disease pandemics to a close.

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Vaccine development for emerging infectious diseases.

Since the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) in December 2019, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the number of confirmed infections has risen to more than 242 million worldwide, with nearly 5 million deaths. Currently, nine Covid-19 vaccine candidates based on the original Wuhan-Hu-1 strain are at the forefront of vaccine research. All nine had an efficacy over 50% against symptomatic Covid-19 disease: NVX-CoV2373 (∼96%), BNT162b2 (∼95%), mRNA-1273 (∼94%), Sputnik V (∼92%), AZD1222 (∼81%), BBIBP-CorV (∼79%), Covaxin (∼78%), Ad26.CoV.S (∼66%) and CoronaVac (∼51%). However, vaccine efficacy (VE) can be jeopardised by the rapid emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOCs) that could escape from neutralising antibodies and/or cell-mediated immunity. Rare adverse events have also been reported soon after administration of viral vector and mRNA vaccines. Although many Covid-19 vaccines have been developed, additional effective vaccines are still needed to meet the global demand. Promising Covid-19 vaccines such as WIBP-CorV, AD5-nCOV, ZyCoV-D, CVnCoV, EpiVacCorona and ZF2001 have advanced to clinical studies. This review describes the most relevant mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, discusses VE against VOCs, presents rare adverse events after Covid-19 vaccination and introduces some promising Covid-19 vaccine candidates.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/rmv.2313

Covid-19 vaccines and variants of concern: A review.

Scientists from across the globe are racing to develop effective vaccines and therapeutics for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Plans are beginning to emerge for ensuring the equitable worldwide distribution of vaccines and therapeutics resulting from biomedical innovations. Absent broad agreement and buy-in on those plans, governments may prioritize their own populations, resulting in inequitable distribution of medical products both within and among countries. During the 2009 influenza A(H1N1) pandemic, wealthy nations bought virtually all vaccine supplies. Even after the WHO appealed for donations, supplies for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) were limited. The White House may have already sought exclusive access to a COVID-19 vaccine candidate. European and Asian countries have imposed export controls on personal protective equipment and ventilators, with similar export controls likely to extend to COVID-19 vaccine and therapeutic stocks.

The development and widespread distribution of COVID-19 medical treatments are a common global interest. Here we offer a proposal for global cooperation to ensure equitable distribution of vaccines and therapies for COViD-19.

The Equitable Distribution of COVID-19 Therapeutics and Vaccines

https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/64075933/1_s2.0_S0305750X2100139X_main.pdf

COVID-19, poverty and inclusive development

COVID-19 Vaccine Donations—Vaccine Empathy or Vaccine Diplomacy? A Narrative Literature Review

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD) has the vision to leave no one behind, particularly low-income countries. Yet COVID-19 seems to have brought up new rules and approaches. Through document and critical discourse analysis, it emerges that there has been a surge in COVID-19 vaccines and treatments nationalism. Global solidarity is threatened, with the USA, United Kingdom, European Union and Japan having secured 1.3 billion doses of potential vaccines as of August 2020. Vaccines ran out even before their approval with three candidates from Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna and AstraZeneca having shown good Phase III results in November 2020. Rich countries have gone years ahead in advance vaccines and treatments purchases. This is a testimony that the 2030 AfSD, especially SDG 3 focusing on health will be difficult to achieve. Low-income countries are left gasping for survival as the COVID-19 pandemic relegates them further into extreme poverty and deeper inequality. The paper recommends the continued mobilisation by the World Health Organisation and other key stakeholders in supporting the GAVI vaccine alliance and the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (COVAX) global vaccines initiative that seeks to make two billion vaccine doses available to 92 low and middle-income countries by December 2021.

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17441692.2020.1860249

COVID-19 vaccines and treatments nationalism: Challenges for low-income countries and the attainment of the SDGs.

The cyclones Idai and Kenneth as well as the 2019 floods were declared the worst to have hit the southern African region in decades. Strong winds and heavy rains placed the region in a state of crisis, claiming lives, flattening buildings and triggering massive floods that damaged critical infrastructure and farmlands and submerged entire communities. Their aftermath left affected people without shelter, food, safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene, a situation which prompted migration. Using the case study research design, this chapter investigates the impacts of these meteorological events on migration patterns of people in Zimbabwe and South Africa focusing on Chimanimani, Zimbabwe, and Port St Johns, South Africa. The chapter further explores whether cyclones, floods and related environmental catastrophes will be the next drivers of intra- and international migration within the southern African region. The findings of the study were based on a survey comprising household questionnaires. The results showed that even though migration decisions are influenced by economic, social and political drivers, people generally prefer to move internally despite the reoccurrence of disasters. Instead, migration to other countries is typically triggered by household economic constraints and tends to be voluntary. The findings resonate with other studies that explore the relationship between environmental catastrophes and internal migration.

Nthivhiseni Mashula

Papers

COVID-19 vaccines and treatments nationalism: Challenges for low-income countries and the attainment of the SDGs.

Exploring the Migration Effects of Cyclones and Floods in Southern Africa: A Focus on 2019 Floods and Cyclones Idai and Kenneth