The environmental impacts of charcoal production in tropical ecosystems of the world: a synthesis

Although 40% of the global population relies on traditional biomass use, mainly firewood and charcoal, for cooking, traditional biomass has received very little attention in the current biomass debate, because of its considered primitive and unsustainable nature. In this review, we discuss how the sustainability of household cooking in developing countries can be improved. Indoor air pollution due to incomplete combustion of traditional biomass causes the death of 1.45 million people every year, mainly of women and children, who also carry the heavy burden of fuelwood collection. In addition, charcoal production and combustion is responsible for very high greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy. On the other hand, fuelwood production and trade is of vital importance for local economies and serves as safety net for the poorest people. Moreover, fuelwood collection is not a driver of deforestation and global fuelwood shortage will not occur, despite local problems of fuelwood provision. There are two distinct policy alternatives to increase the sustainability of cooking in developing countries. The first option is to climb the energy ladder and to switch from solid fuels to fossil fuels (LPG or kerosene), biogas or electricity. As this largely avoids the severe health damages of traditional biomass use, this option is considered the most desirable by numerous countries and by international organizations. However, as most developing countries are far away from meeting the necessary requirements, related to infrastructure, economics and local culture, expecting a large-scale switch to liquid fuels or electricity is unrealistic. In that case, the second policy option, increasing the sustainability of the current traditional biomass system, must be considered. This can be realized by an integrated approach, in which national and regional fuelwood policies are adapted, improved systems for charcoal production are implied and improved stoves, in combination with chimneys, are distributed.

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Increasing the sustainability of household cooking in developing countries: Policy implications

Achieving sustainable energy development in a region requires rational use of energy resources and technologies, and the development of appropriate policies. Three concerns are therefore required to achieve these issues: (i) to acquire a picture of the local current energy situation, (ii) to measure the state of development and the progress towards a sustainable energy system, and (iii) to have energy decision- and policy-makers fully aware of the implications on sustainable development of selected policies. It is in this perspective and in the frame of activities on sustainable energy for all and access to energy in developing countries carried out by the UNESCO Chair in Energy for Sustainable Development, that we developed this review. The objective of this paper is to depict the current energy situation of Africa by using the most up to date data, describing it as far as the concept of sustainable development is concerned, and to see if and how energy policies promoted by local players fit with this asset. We assess the energy situation of Africa by combining (i) data, mainly by the International Energy Agency, about national energy balances for primary and electric energy, the Energy Development Index and energy resources, with (ii) a more comprehensive analysis of the African energy system, accomplished by the Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development. An overview of the energy-related policies and action plans developed by different local players in the African continent is also carried out with the goal of providing remarks by coupling such plans with the above mentioned energy analysis.

Sustainable energy in Africa: A comprehensive data and policies review

Forest degradation and recovery in a miombo woodland landscape in Zambia: 22 years of observations on permanent sample plots

The West African forest-savanna mosaic, an important habitat for biodiversity and humans, is severely degraded, fragmented and modified by human activities. However, few studies have quantified the land cover changes observed over time and/or analysed the drivers of change. This study focused on Fazao-Malfakassa National Park, the largest in Togo, uses a combination of remote sensing, ground surveys and questionnaires to: (i) quantify vegetation changes, (ii) determine the drivers of change, (iii) compare results with findings elsewhere in the region and (iv) suggest management interventions. The images used were Landsat 5 TM, Landsat 7 ETM and Sentinel-2. Different vegetation indices were computed including: number of fragments, index of dominance, mean area of a vegetation type and mean annual expansion rate. In total, 300 people (including park staff and local populations) were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Results indicate that between 1987 and 2015 closed-canopy forest and tree-savanna became severely degraded and fragmented, following trends in other parts of the West African forest-savanna mosaic. The main drivers of change were agricultural expansion, bush fires and timber extraction. Observed changes and drivers altered with time: e.g. agricultural expansion was greatest during 1987-2001 (linked with political instability) while illegal timber extraction augmented during 2001-2015 (following increased timber value). Park staff and local populations' perceptions on drivers of change did not differ. Our study highlights that action is urgently needed if we are to preserve this important habitat, the biodiversity it hosts and the services it provides to humans. We suggest several management interventions, learning from successful interventions elsewhere in the region.

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Changes in the West African forest-savanna mosaic, insights from central Togo.

In Togo, fuel wood and charcoal account for more than 80% of total householdenergy requirements. Charcoal production results in a high pressure on the commonly used woody species. This study was carried out to assess the impact of charcoal production on the vegetation. Surveys involving 310 charcoal producers from 4 production areas were carried out. In each production area, density, diameter, height and basal area of woody species were measured both in unexploited plots and exploited plots. Inside the 4 charcoal production areas, 158 woody species were identified including 34 regularly exploited for charcoal production, that is, 15 preferred and 19 by default. Diversity indexes (Species Richness, Shannon and Evenness) and variability of densities are significantly higher in unexploited plots than those in exploited plots. The average heights vary between 4 and 7 m inside the exploited plots and from 6 to 9 m inside the unexploited plots. Average diameter and basal area are statistically not different inside unexploited plots and exploited plots. The most common regeneration methods inside the 4 charcoal production areas are seedlings and coppices. The preferred species regenerate better in exploited plots than those exploited by default. The study concludes that the negative effect of charcoal production on natural ecosystems has resulted in the depletion of the biodiversity, density, height, diameter of the stands and basal area of the woody species.

	 

	Key words: Charcoal production, plant diversity, woody population structure, regeneration.

https://www.academicjournals.org/article/article1380535853_Kouami et al.pdf

Nuto Yaovi

Papers

Impact of charcoal production on woody plant species in West Africa: A case study in Togo