The pyridine nucleotides NAD and NADP play vital roles in metabolic conversions as signal transducers and in cellular defence systems. Both coenzymes participate as electron carriers in energy transduction and biosynthetic processes. Their oxidized forms, NAD + and NADP + , have been identified as important elements of regulatory pathways. In particular, NAD + serves as a substrate for ADP-ribosylation reactions and for the Sir2 family of NAD + -dependent protein deacetylases as well as a precursor of the calcium mobilizing molecule cADPr (cyclic ADP-ribose). The conversions of NADP + into the 2′-phosphorylated form of cADPr or to its nicotinic acid derivative, NAADP, also result in the formation of potent intracellular calcium-signalling agents. Perhaps, the most critical function of NADP is in the maintenance of a pool of reducing equivalents which is essential to counteract oxidative damage and for other detoxifying reactions. It is well known that the NADPH/NADP + ratio is usually kept high, in favour of the reduced form. Research within the past few years has revealed important insights into how the NADPH pool is generated and maintained in different subcellular compartments. Moreover, tremendous progress in the molecular characterization of NAD kinases has established these enzymes as vital factors for cell survival. In the present review, we summarize recent advances in the understanding of the biosynthesis and signalling functions of NAD(P) and highlight the new insights into the molecular mechanisms of NADPH generation and their roles in cell physiology.

The power to reduce: pyridine nucleotides – small molecules with a multitude of functions

Intracellular concentrations of the four deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs) are closely regulated, and imbalances in the four dNTP pools have genotoxic consequences. Replication errors leading to mutations can occur, for example, if one dNTP in excess drives formation of a non-Watson-Crick base pair or if it forces replicative DNA chain elongation past a mismatch before DNA polymerase can correct the error by 3' exonuclease proofreading. This review focuses on developments since 1994, when the field was last reviewed comprehensively. Emphasis is placed on the following topics: 1) novel aspects of dNTP pool regulation, 2) dNTP pool asymmetries as mutagenic determinants, 3) dNTP metabolism and hypermutagenesis of retroviral genomes, 4) dNTP metabolism and mutagenesis in the mitochondrial genome, 5) chemical modification of nucleotides as a premutagenic event, 6) relationships between dNTP metabolism, genome stability, aging, and cancer.

DNA precursor metabolism and genomic stability

Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) is an essential electron donor in all organisms. It provides the reducing power that drives numerous anabolic reactions, including those responsible for the biosynthesis of all major cell components and many products in biotechnology. The efficient synthesis of many of these products, however, is limited by the rate of NADPH regeneration. Hence, a thorough understanding of the reactions involved in the generation of NADPH is required to increase its turnover through rational strain improvement. Traditionally, the main engineering targets for increasing NADPH availability have included the dehydrogenase reactions of the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway and the isocitrate dehydrogenase step of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. However, the importance of alternative NADPH-generating reactions has recently become evident. In the current review, the major canonical and non-canonical reactions involved in the production and regeneration of NADPH in prokaryotes are described, and their key enzymes are discussed. In addition, an overview of how different enzymes have been applied to increase NADPH availability and thereby enhance productivity is provided.

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NADPH-generating systems in bacteria and archaea

http://www.jbc.org/content/282/46/33562.full.pdf

NAD kinase levels control the NADPH concentration in human cells.

Most reactive oxygen species (ROS) in living organisms are produced as byproducts of many processes. Being highly active, ROS interact with virtually all cellular components particularly modifying their properties. In this review, detailed analysis of chemical modifications of proteins on their interaction with ROS is given with particular interest in cleavage of polypeptide chains and oxidation of side chains of amino acid residues. Special attention has been paid to identification of products of free radical modification of proteins with a focus on the formation of additional carbonyl groups, which are the most frequently used markers of these processes. Functional consequences of protein modification by ROS depend on the nature of ROS and protein as well as particular conditions of their interaction. The relationship between protein oxidation and functional state of organisms, particularly aging, hyperoxia and hypoxia, and heat shock, as well as with different pathologies has been analyzed. The final part of the article is devoted to possible ways of protecting proteins against oxidation in vivo.

Free radical oxidation of proteins and its relationship with functional state of organisms.

In a search for nuclear genes that affect mutagenesis of mitochondrial DNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, an ATP-NAD (NADH) kinase, encoded by POS5, that functions exclusively in mitochondria was identified. The POS5 gene product was overproduced in Escherichia coli and purified without a mitochondrial targeting sequence. A direct biochemical assay demonstrated that the POS5 gene product utilizes ATP to phosphorylate both NADH and NAD+, with a twofold preference for NADH. Disruption of POS5 increased minus-one frameshift mutations in mitochondrial DNA 50-fold, as measured by the arg8m reversion assay, with no increase in nuclear mutations. Also, a dramatic increase in petite colony formation and slow growth on glycerol or limited glucose were observed. POS5 was previously described as a gene required for resistance to hydrogen peroxide. Consistent with a role in the mitochondrial response to oxidative stress, a pos5 deletion exhibited a 28-fold increase in oxidative damage to mitochondrial proteins and hypersensitivity to exogenous copper. Furthermore, disruption of POS5 induced mitochondrial biogenesis as a response to mitochondrial dysfunction. Thus, the POS5 NADH kinase is required for mitochondrial DNA stability with a critical role in detoxification of reactive oxygen species. These results predict a role for NADH kinase in human mitochondrial diseases.

Olivia C. Dominick

Papers

POS5 Gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Encodes a Mitochondrial NADH Kinase Required for Stability of Mitochondrial DNA