Although invasive species are viewed as major threats to ecosystems worldwide, few such species have been studied in enough detail to identify the pathways, magnitudes, and timescales of their impact on native fauna. One of the most intensively studied invasive taxa in this respect is the cane toad (Bufo marinus), which was introduced to Australia in 1935. A review of these studies suggests that a single pathwaylethal toxic ingestion of toads by frog-eating predatorsis the major mechanism of impact, but that the magnitude of impact varies dramatically among predator taxa, as well as through space and time. Populations of large predators (e.g., varanid and scincid lizards, elapid snakes, freshwater crocodiles, and dasyurid marsupials) may be imperilled by toad invasion, but impacts vary spatially even within the same predator species. Some of the taxa severely impacted by toad invasion recover within a few decades, via aversion learning and longer-term adaptive changes. No native species have gone...

https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/655116

The Ecological Impact of Invasive Cane Toads (Bufo Marinus) in Australia

Summary 1. Even when we cannot eradicate an invasive species, we may be able to reduce its ecological impact. In Australia, a critically endangered predator, the northern quoll Dasyurus hallucatus is threatened by the invasion of the highly toxic cane toad Bufo marinus. Following toad invasion, quoll populations have become extinct across Northern Australia. Toads are continuing to spread, and will soon invade the Kimberley, one of the quoll’s last strongholds. To prevent future local extinctions, we need a new approach for mitigating the impact of cane toads on this iconic predator. 2. We investigated whether conditioned taste aversion (CTA) could be used to modify quoll predatory behaviour and mitigate toad impacts. We successfully induced an aversion to live toads in juvenile northern quolls by feeding them a dead toad containing a nausea-inducing chemical (thiabendazole). 3. To investigate whether CTA enhanced quoll survival, we fitted radiocollars to 31 toad-smart and

https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01802.x

Conditioned taste aversion enhances the survival of an endangered predator imperilled by a toxic invader

https://www.ib.usp.br/trefaut/pdfs/Jared%20et%20al._2009_Parotoid%20macroglands%20in%20toad%20(iRhinella%20jimii)%20their%20structure%20and%20functioning%20in%20passive%20defence.pdf

Parotoid macroglands in toad (Rhinella jimi): Their structure and functioning in passive defence

Amphibians are known by cutaneous glands, spread over the skin, containing toxins (proteins, peptides, biogenic amines, steroidal bufadienolides, and alkaloids) used as chemical defense against predators and microbial infection. Toads are characterized by the presence of parotoid macroglands. The common toads have lately been divided into two genera: Bufo (Europe, Asia, and Africa) and Rhinella (South America). Basal Rhaebo genus is exclusively of Central America and Amazon region. Although Rhinella and Rhaebo are related, species may share differences due to the diversity of environments that they live in. In this work, we have performed a biochemical characterization of the components of the poison of eight Rhinella species and one Rhaebo by means of RP-HPLC with either UV or MS detection and by SDS-PAGE, in order to verify whether phylogenetic and biological differences, such as habitat, diet, and defensive strategies, between them may also be reflected in poison composition. Although some components were common among the secretions, we were able to identify exclusive molecules to some species. The fact that closely related animals living in different habitats secrete different molecules into the skin is an indication that biological features, and not only evolution, seem to directly influence the skin secretion composition.

/pdf/differences-and-similarities-among-parotoid-macrogland-1jp5xiwh5z.pdf

Differences and Similarities among Parotoid Macrogland Secretions in South American Toads: A Preliminary Biochemical Delineation

Amphibians have many skin poison glands used in passive defense, in which the aggressor causes its own poisoning when biting prey. In some amphibians the skin glands accumulate in certain regions forming macroglands, such as the parotoids of toads. We have discovered that the toad Rhaebo guttatus is able to squirt jets of poison towards the aggressor, contradicting the typical amphibian defense. We studied the R. guttatus chemical defense, comparing it with Rhinella marina, a sympatric species showing typical toad passive defense. We found that only in R. guttatus the parotoid is adhered to the scapula and do not have a calcified dermal layer. In addition, in this species, the plugs obstructing the glandular ducts are more fragile when compared to R. marina. As a consequence, the manual pressure necessary to extract the poison from the parotoid is twice as high in R. marina when compared to that used in R. guttatus. Compared to R. marina, the poison of R. guttatus is less lethal, induces edema and provokes nociception four times more intense. We concluded that the ability of R. guttatus to voluntary squirt poison is directly related to its stereotyped defensive behavior, together with the peculiar morphological characteristics of its parotoids. Since R. guttatus poison is practically not lethal, it is possibly directed to predators' learning, causing disturbing effects such as pain and edema. The unique mechanism of defense of R. guttatus may mistakenly justify the popular myth that toads, in general, squirt poison into people's eyes. J. Exp. Zool. 321A: 65–77, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Passive and active defense in toads: the parotoid macroglands in Rhinella marina and Rhaebo guttatus.

Toads (order: Anura; family: Bufonidae; genus: Bufo) are distributed throughout the world, but more species are found in areas of tropical and humid temperate climates. Although toads do not have a venom inoculation system, they are venomous animals because the glands covering the whole surface of their bodies secrete a milk-like venom of which composition is not yet completely known. Some of these glands are the bilateral glands located in post-orbital position. These glands, which are somewhat diamond-shaped and can be seen by the naked eye, are known as parotids. Toad envenoming in dogs may cause local and systemic alterations and may cause death by cardiac ventricular fibrillation. The electrocardiographic alterations observed consist of gradual deterioration of the normal standards with progressive appearance of negative ventricular deflections that can result in ventricular fibrillation and death if the envenomed dog is not promptly treated. Traditional therapy consists mainly of administration of atropine and propranolol; the latter used to prevent ventricular fibrillation.

Toad envenoming in dogs: effects and treatment

Toad envenoming in dogs can cause death by cardiac fibrilation (CVF). Traditional therapy consists mainly of atropine and propranolol, the last one used to prevent the CVF, that is preceded by negative ventricular deflections (NVDs) in the QRS complex of the electrocardiogram. This study intended to verify, comparatively, the lidocaine, propranolol, amiodarone, and verapamil abilities to prevent CVF in experimentally envenomed dogs. Thirty-six dogs were divided into 6 groups (GL, GP, GA, GV, GST, and GSV) with n=6; the dogs were submitted to volatile anaesthesia. The animals of the groups GL, GP, GA, and GV received 0.38g of toad venom through oro-gastric catheter and were treated with the following drugs respectively: lidocaine (4mg/Kg), propranolol (0.1mg/Kg), amiodarone (8mg/Kg), and verapamil (2mg/Kg). These drugs were repeated if NVDs reappeared with cardiac frequency >150, GST was not treated and GSV was just anaesthetized. The following results were obtained: GL, NVDs present in 4 animals, 100% recuperation with 3.66 doses/animal; GP, NVDs present in 2 animals, 100% recuperation with 1.66 dose/animal, with bradycardia at the anaesthetic return; GA, NVDs present in 3 animals, 33.33% recuperation with 1.5 dose/animal; GV, NVDs present in 4 animals, 100% recuperation with 2.16 doses/animal; GST, NVD present in 6 animals, 100% death and GSV, NVDs absent, 100% recuperation. As a conclusion, the anaesthetic proceedings used, did not cause NVDs, the envenoming that was not treated was lethal, and among the antiarrhythmics drugs used, verapamil was the most efficient, as it did not cause any serious bradycardia at the anaesthetic return and did not require repeated administrations. For lidocaine, it was efficient but required various administrations; amiodarone could not prevent the death of 4 animals; propranolol was efficient in relation to NVDs control, but caused serious bradycardia at the anaesthetic return.

P. C. Lucas De Oliveira

Papers

Toad envenoming in dogs: effects and treatment

Use of lidocaine, propranolol, amiodarone, and verapamil in toad envenoming (genus bufo) in dogs