There is a great demand for high-protein materials for livestock feed in Europe and European agriculture has a deficit of about 70% high-protein materials of which 87% is met by imported soybean and soy meal. This reflects the fact that grain legumes are currently under represented in European agriculture and produced on only 1.5% of the arable land in Europe compared with 14.5% on a worldwide basis. Several grain legumes have the potential to replace at least some of the soya currently used in the diets of monogastric animals, ruminants, and fish. There are also opportunities for greater use of legumes in new foods. Here we review the contribution of ecosystem services by grain legumes in European agriculture starting with provisioning services in terms of food and feed and moving on to the contribution they make to both regulating and supporting services which are in part due to the diversity which these crops bring to cropping systems. We explore the need to understand grain legume production on the time scale of a rotation rather than a cropping season in order to value and manage the agronomic challenges of weed, pests, and diseases alongside the maintenance or improvement of soil structure, soil organic matter, and nutrient cycling. A review of policy interventions to support grain legumes reveals that until very recently these have failed to make a difference in Europe. We contrast the European picture with the interventions that have allowed the development of grain legume production in both Canada and Australia. Whether farmers choose to grow more legumes will depend on market opportunities, the development of supply chains, and policy support as well as technical improvements of grain legume production such as breeding of new varieties and management development to improve yield stability. However, to really increase the production of grain legumes in Europe, the issues are far more wide reaching than agronomy or subsidy and require a fundamental rethinking of value chains to move grain legumes from being niche products to mainstream commodities.

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Grain Legume Production and Use in European Agricultural Systems

Switchgrass produces high amounts of biomass that can be used for solid biofuel production. In this study, the dry biomass yield vs. N–P–K nutrient uptake relations as well as the N-mineralization and the N-fertilization recovery fraction for switchgrass (cv. Alamo) were determined under field conditions for three N-fertilization (0, 80 and 160 kg ha−1) and for two irrigation (0 and 250 mm) levels, in two soils in central Greece with rather different moisture status over the period 2009–2012. It was found that dry biomass yield on the aquic soil may reach 27–30 t ha−1 using supplemental irrigation, and remain at high levels (19–24 t ha−1) without irrigation. In the xeric soil, however, lower biomass yields of 14–15 t ha−1 may be produced with supplemental irrigation. The average N-concentration varies between 0.23% in stems and 1.10% in leaves, showing the very low needs in N. P-content varies between 0.16% in leaves and 0.03% in stems, whereas K-content fluctuates between 0.67% and 0.78%. Linear biomass yield-nutrient uptake relationships were found with high R2, pointing to nutrient use efficiencies of 240 and 160 kg kg−1, for N and K respectively. The base N-uptake ranged 70–84 kg ha−1 in the aquic to 60 kg ha−1 or less in the xeric soil. N-recovery fraction was about 30% in the aquic soil and lower in the xeric. Therefore, switchgrass is very promising for biomass production and its introduction in land use systems (especially in aquic soils of similar environments) should be seriously taken into consideration.

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) nutrients use efficiency and uptake characteristics, and biomass yield for solid biofuel production under Mediterranean conditions

The effect of green manure on the growth of irrigated corn (Zea mays L. cv Cisko) was investigated under different drip irrigation rates on a clay soil in Greece. A feed pea (Pisum sativum L. cv Olympus) crop was established in autumn and incorporated into the soil in spring, about 3 weeks before the sowing of the subsequent corn. During the growing period, the growth stages and yield of corn were assessed under three drip irrigation levels I1 (33% low), I2 (66% moderate) and I3 (100% full of actual evapotranspiration, ETm) and two cultivation practices a) application of green manure and b) experiment without previous green manuring. The positive effects of green manuring were greater in the moderately and fully irrigated plots. Drip irrigation was applied to minimize nitrate leaching which requires low volume of water. In plots receiving moderate or full irrigation, biomass, leaf area index (LAI) and seed yield were much higher in comparison to stressed plants (33% ETm). Increased yield and dry biomass obtained in the plots after incorporation of feed pea residues, may be attributed mainly to the elevated amount of soil organic matter (SOM). The increased yield exceeds the overall cost for green manure application, and this economic incentive is expected to be even more significant taking into account the continuous improvement of soil conditions.

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Effects of irrigation and green manure on corn (Zea mays L.) biomass and grain yield

Panicum virgatum could produce cattle feed with lower costs due to the low input requirements and its perennial nature. Dry biomass yield vs. N-P-K nutrient uptake relations as well as the N-mineralization and the N-fertilization recovery fraction for Panicum virgatum (cv. Alamo) were determined under field conditions for four N-fertilization (0, 80, 160 and 240 kg ha-1) and two irrigation levels (0 and 250 mm), οn two soils in central Greece with rather different moisture status. It was found that the dry fodder yield on the aquic soil may reach 14 t ha-1 using supplemental irrigation; while on the xeric soil a lower yield of 9-10 t ha-1 may be produced only under supplemental irrigation. Moreover, the average N, P and K concentration was 1.3%, 0.14% and 1.3% in leaves, and 0.5%, 0.85%, and 1.5% in stems, respectively, showing the very low crop requirements. Furthermore, linear biomass yield-nutrient uptake relationships were found with high R2, pointing to nutrient use efficiency of 132 and 75 kg kg-1, for N and K respectively. The base N-uptake ranged from 71-74 kg ha-1 on the aquic to 60 kg ha-1 or less on the xeric soil. Finally, it was found that N-recovery fraction was 20% on the aquic soil and lower on the xeric. Therefore, it could be conclude that Panicum virgatum seems to be a very promising crop for fodder production and its introduction in land use systems (especially οn aquic soils of similar environments) should be taken into consideration.

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Nutrients Use Efficiency and Uptake Characteristics of Panicum virgatum for Fodder Production

Including annual forage legumes (AFLs) in crop rotation systems is a leading application in efficient, sustainable agricultural production intended to preserve environmental resources. This review identifies some of the effects of AFLs’ potential for growth in both irrigated and dry regions of Turkey on economic, efficient and sustainable agricultural production. AFLs are considered in terms of both hay production and their contributions to soil fertility. Among its findings, the review indicates that AFLs can readily be cultivated during bare periods between two primary summer and winter crop cycles instead of leaving fields fallow in the yearly agricultural cycle. Although AFLs are important sources of forage for livestock, their production as dry matter can be profitable only under irrigated conditions due to the high input of agriculture in Turkey. In addition to dry matter production, AFLs increase the yields of subsequent plants by facilitating nitrogen fixation and organic matter recovery. In particular, green manuring with AFLs introduces high volumes of organic matter and carbon into the soil, which improves nutrient availability, microbial activity and the physical and chemical properties of soil. Moreover, the mulch layer obtained from green manuring enhances weed and erosion control and the efficient use of water. In sum, including AFLs in cropping systems in Turkey can allow more profitable, more efficient and more sustainable production than using non-legume crops or bare soils.

Potential Impact of Annual Forage Legumes on Sustainable Cropping Systems in Turkey

The long-term positive effects of cropping systems involving rotation with cover crops on soil properties and the environment are well recognized. The present work concerns a 3-year field experiment focusing on two cropping systems including two energy crops [maize (Zea mays L.) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)] cultivated May–September on an infertile sandy soil, and Pisum sativum cultivated as cover crop after the harvest of the energy crop. Soil samples from two soil layers, 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm deep, were collected at the beginning and end of the experiments; they were analyzed for soil physical and chemical properties such as soil moisture properties, total nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), pH, organic matter, and organic carbon (C). The results demonstrated the effect of pisum intercropping on the performance of the subsequent energy crop. These results are particularly important for the cultivation of less fertile soils such as sandy soils, which can be put in use for the production ...

Effects of pea cultivation as cover crop on nitrogen-use efficiency and nitrogen uptake by subsequent maize and sunflower crops in a sandy soil in Central Greece.

P. Efthimiadis

Papers

Effects of pea cultivation as cover crop on nitrogen-use efficiency and nitrogen uptake by subsequent maize and sunflower crops in a sandy soil in Central Greece.