This effort investigates the underlying physics of ejecta production for high explosive (HE) shocked Sn surfaces prepared with finishes typical to those roughened by tool marks left from machining processes. To investigate the physical mechanisms of ejecta production, we compiled and re-examined ejecta data from two experimental campaigns [W. S. Vogan et al., J. Appl. Phys. 98, 113508 (1998); M. B. Zellner et al., ibid. 102, 013522 (2007)] to form a self-consistent data set spanning a large parameter space. In the first campaign, ejecta created upon shock release at the back side of HE shocked Sn samples were characterized for samples with varying surface finishes but at similar shock-breakout pressures PSB. In the second campaign, ejecta were characterized for HE shocked Sn samples with a constant surface finish but at varying PSB.

Probing the underlying physics of ejecta production from shocked Sn samples

This article describes the use of the Fabry–Perot laser interferometer in the fringe mode to measure velocities of fast‐moving reflecting surfaces, and includes a review of previously published work. We begin by describing the theory of the Doppler shift that applies to these situations, and include an experimental test of whether surface normal direction affects Doppler shift. Formulas are derived for the analysis of the effects of shocked, dispersive, moving transparent media on velocity measurements, including expressions for the velocity of light in a moving medium with moving boundaries. The Fabry–Perot method is compared with other techniques such as the VISAR interferometer. We then describe in detail a standard configuration developed at our facilities, discuss other configurations using optical fibers and more than one cylinder lens, and describe a new laser amplifier developed specifically for velocimetry. Methods of alignment, instrument calibration, surface preparation, and operation are inclu...

Velocimetry of fast surfaces using Fabry–Perot interferometry

At LLNL, we have been using heterodyne techniques for the past year and a half to measure velocities up to several kilometers-per-second on different types of experiments. We assembled this diagnostic, which we call the Heterodyne Velocimeter (HetV), using commercially available products developed for the communications industry. We use a 1550 nm fiber laser and single mode fibers to deliver light to and from the target. The return Doppler-shifted light is mixed with the original laser light to generate a beat frequency proportional to the velocity. At a velocity of 1000 m/s, the beat signal has a frequency of 1.29 GHz. We record the beat signals directly onto fast digitizers. The maximum velocity is limited by the bandwidth of the electronics and the sampling rate of the digitizers. The record length is limited by the amount of memory contained in the digitizers. This paper describes our approach to measuring velocities with this technique and presents recent data obtained with the HetV.

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Velocimetry using heterodyne techniques

Explosive metal-working, material synthesis under shock loading, terminal ballistics, and explosive rock-blasting, are some of the civil and military fields of activity that call for a wider knowledge about the behavior of materials subjected to strong dynamic pressures. It is in these fields that Lagrangian analysis methods, the subject of this work, prove to be a useful investigative tool for the physicist. Lagrangian analysis was developed around 1970 by Fowles and Williams. The idea is based on the integration of the conservation equations of mechanics using stress or particle velocity records obtained by means of transducers placed in the path of a stress wave. In this way, all the kinematical and mechanical quantities contained in the conservation equations are obtained. In the first chapter the authors introduce the mathematical tools used to analyze plane and spherical one-dimensional motions. For plane motion, they describe the mathematical analysis methods pertinent to the three regimes of wave propagation encountered : the non-attenuating unsteady wave, the simple wave, and the attenuating unsteady wave. In each of these regimes, cases are treated for which either stress or particle velocity records are initially available. The authors insist that one or the other groups of data (stress and particle velocity) are sufficient to integrate the conservation equations in the case of the plane motion when both groups of data are necessary in the case of the spherical motion. However, in spite of this additional difficulty, Lagrangian analysis of the spherical motion remains particularly interesting for the physicist because it allows access to the behavior of the material under deformation processes other than that imposed by plane one-dimensional motion. The methods expounded in the first chapter are based on Lagrangian measurement of particle velocity and stress in relation to time in a material compressed by a plane or spherical dilatational wave. The Lagrangian specificity of the required measurements is assured by the fact that a transducer enclosed within a solid material is necessarily linked in motion to the particles of the material which surround it. This Lagrangian instrumentation is described in the second chapter. The authors are concerned with the techniques considered today to be the most effective. These are, for stress : piezoresistive gauges (50 Ω and low impedance) and piezoelectric techniques (PVF2 gauges, quartz transducers) ; and for particle velocity : electromagnetic gauges, VISAR and IDL Doppler laser interferometers. In each case both the physical principles as well as techniques of use are set out in detail. For the most part, the authors use their own experience to describe the calibration of these instrumentation systems and to compare their characteristics : measurement range, response time, accuracy, useful recording time, detection area... These characteristics should be taken into account by the physicist when he has to choose the instrumentation systems best adapted to the Lagrangian analysis he intends to apply to any given material. The discussion at the end of chapter 2 should guide his choice both for plane and spherical one-dimensional motions. The third chapter examines to what extent the accuracy of Lagrangian analysis is affected by the accuracies of the numerical analysis methods and experimental techniques. By means of a discussion of different cases of analysis, the authors want to make the reader aware of the different kinds of sources of errors that may be encountered. This work brings up to date the state of studies on Lagrangian analysis methods based on a wide review of bibliographical sources together with the contribution made to research in this field by the four authors themselves in the course of the last ten years.

Lagrangian analysis. Modern tool of the dynamics of solids

This effort investigates surface-preparation methods to enhance dynamic surface-property measurements of shocked metal surfaces. To assess the ability of making reliable and consistent dynamic surface-property measurements, the amount of material ejected from the free surface upon shock release to vacuum (ejecta) was monitored for shocked Al-1100 and Sn targets. Four surface-preparation methods were considered: Fly-cut machine finish, diamond-turned machine finish, polished finish, and ball rolled. The samples were shock loaded by in-contact detonation of HE PBX-9501 on the front side of the metal coupons. Ejecta production at the back side or free side of the metal coupons was monitored using piezoelectric pins, optical shadowgraphy, and x-ray attenuation radiography.

Surface preparation methods to enhance dynamic surface property measurements of shocked metal surfaces

An interferometric system for continuously measuring specimen velocity is described. The Doppler shift of a laser beam reflected from the specimen’s free surface is transformed into a variation of the diameter of Fabry–Perot interference rings, and the evolution of the diameter versus time is continuously recorded by a streak camera. Two examples of the use of this system for study of shock waves are given to show the accuracy of this device.

P. Laharrague

Papers

Interferometric laser technique for accurate velocity measurement in shock wave physics