Satellite-borne radar altimetry offers a unique opportunity for measuring the form and mass balance of the polar ice sheets. Changes in ice-sheet mass balance are intimately linked to climatic change and variations in the global mean sea level. However, previous altimeter measurements of ice-sheet topography have been made without the use of a well-validated model of the altimeter return. Here, we present a theoretical model of the return which, supported by both observational and experimental evidence, suggests that over vast areas of the higher altitude regions of the ice-sheets, significant radar penetration of the firn occurs at frequencies commonly used for space altimetry. This implies the need for a previously-neglected correction to height measurements which can be as much as 3-3 m, depending on the retracking method and location. Since the degree of radar penetration may exhibit variability over a range of time-scales, failure to account for the effect could lead to erroneous estimates o...

A model of satellite radar altimeter return from ice sheets

The angular dependence and polarization behaviour of back-scattering and emission of polar firn at 52 GHz and 103 GHz were measured during an oversnow traverse in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica The signatures emphasize the importance of snow stratification in the interpretation of microwave remote sensing measurements Highest backscattering coefficients and little angular variations were observed for refrozen firn near the coast In permanently dry snow, areas with high accumulation rates and homogeneous snow morphology showed low backscattering coefficients and high emissivities Pronounced layering and related density variations in low accumulation zones resulted in increased polarization differences of brightness temperatures and increased like-polarized backscattering coefficients This behaviour is confirmed by the analysis of C-band scatterometer measurements of the Active Microwave Instrument aboard the European Space Agency's ERS-1

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Active and passive microwave signatures of Antarctic firn by means of field measurements and satellite data

For 3 months in 1978, the 14.6 GHz Seasat-A scatterometer (SASS) measured the normalized microwave-radar back-scatter coefficient of the Earth’s surface for the purpose of estimating near-surface vector winds over the ocean. SASS also made back-scatter measurements over land and ice regions; however, the application of this data has been limited due to the low (50 km) resolution of the measurements. Using a new technique for generating 6 km enhanced-resolution SASS images of the radar back-scatter characteristics, we present a study of the 1978 condition of the Greenland ice sheet. We derive a time-series of back-scatter images spanning the period July–September 1978. These images show the extent of summer ablation along the ice-sheet periphery. Using the data and models relating firn structure and condition to radar back-scatter characteristics, we delineate and map the seasonal extent of zones which appear to correspond to dry-snow, percolation, wet-snow, and ablation facies, over virtually the entire ice sheet. The results provide a base line with which to compare current (ERS-1) and future Greenland radar maps of snow-and ice-surface conditions.

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Greenland ice-sheet surface properties observed by the Seasat-A scatterometer at enhanced resolution

Though designed to measure vector winds over the ocean, new imaging techniques facilitate the use of NASA scatterometer data (NSCAT) in cryosphere studies. NSCAT provides data of unprecedented coverage, resolution, and quality which, when coupled with the scatterometer image reconstruction with filtering (SIRF) algorithm, enables images of /spl sigma//sup o/ at resolutions approaching 8 km over stationary targets. Such images are useful in ice mapping and classification, and multidecadal studies are possible by comparison with Seasat Scatterometer (SASS) data. The utility of NSCAT data in polar ice studies is illustrated through a review of two cryosphere applications of NSCAT data: (1) sea-ice mapping and tracking and (2) ice-sheet change in Greenland and Antarctica. The wide swath and frequent revisit, coupled with incidence and azimuth angle diversity makes NSCAT data very effective in mapping the extent of sea-ice. In Greenland, snow and ice "facies" are clearly delineated on the basis of the seasonally dependent radar backscattering cross section, due to sensitivity of radar backscatter to diagenetic changes occurring at and beneath the surface. Comparison of NSCAT and SASS data enables study of change in Greenland between 1978 and 1996.

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Cryosphere applications of NSCAT data

Surface-based microwave radar measurements were performed at a location on the western flank of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Here, firn metamorphasis is dominated by seasonal melt, which leads to marked contrasts in the vertical structure of winter and summer firn. This snow regime is also one of the brightest radar targets on Earth with an average backscatter coefficient of 0 dB at 5.3 GHz and an incidence angle of 25 deg. By combining detailed observations of firn physical properties with ranging radar measurements we find that the glaciological mechanism associated with this strong electromagnetic response is summer ice lens formation within the previous winter's snow pack. This observation has important implications for monitoring and understanding changes in ice sheet volume using spaceborne microwave sensors.

Radar measurements of melt zones on the Greenland Ice Sheet

Microwave remote sensing measurements were collected over Greenland with the NASA C-130 aircraft used as a platform. The principal instruments were a C band radiometer and an X band scatterometer, which simultaneously collected both active and passive microwave remote sensing data. The results indicate that subsurface inhomogeneities control the scattering and emission process, including anisotropic effects. The results strongly suggest that microwave remote sensing techniques can provide a relative measure of the density and orientation of the volume scatters.

P. S. Hayes

Papers

Airborne microwave measurements of the Southern Greenland Ice Sheet