A meta-analysis of 205 studies involving 23,702 Ss was conducted to determine whether there are sex differences in self-disclosure. Across these studies, women disclosed slightly more than men (d = .18). This effect size was not homogeneous across studies. Several moderator variables were found. Sex of target and the interaction effect of relationship to target and measure of self-disclosure moderated the effect of sex on self-disclosure. Sex differences in self-disclosure were significantly greater to female and same-sex partners than to opposite-sex or male partners. When the target had a relationship with the discloser (i.e., friend, parent, or spouse), women disclosed more than men regardless of whether self-disclosure was measured by self-report or observation. When the target was a stranger, men reported that they disclosed similarly to women; however, studies using observational measures of self-disclosure found that women disclosed more than men.

Sex differences in self-disclosure: a meta-analysis.

Psychological androgyny: Theories, methods, and conclusions.

Male Sex Role Conflicts, Sexism, and Masculinity: Psychological Implications for Men, Women, and the Counseling Psychologist

The objective of this study (N = 172) was to evaluate (a) the equivalence of the scales of the short Bern Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Extended Personal Attributes Questionnaire (EPAQ); (b) the construct validity of the short BSRI and EPAQ as measures of well-being; (c) the validity of the concept of androgyny as an intrinsically interactive (rather than simply additive) concept; and (d) the utility and meaning of two special EPAQ measures: unmitigated agency (M~) and unmitigated communion (Fc~). The short BSRI and EPAQ were found empirically interchangeable when placed in a multitrait-multimethod matrix and two extrinsic convergent validation rectangles. Results of a hierarchical multiple regression analysis with interaction terms obtained with the Differential Personality Questionnaire (DPQ) provided only partial support for masculinity and femininity as measures of psychological well-being and no support for the significance of androgyny treated as an interaction of masculinity and femininity. Unmitigated agency and communion did not show the expected negative correlations with the mutual mitigation (interaction) of masculinity and femininity. Implications of this study for future investigations of androgyny and other integrative concepts denned by interactions are discussed.

https://my.vanderbilt.edu/smpy/files/2013/02/LubinskiTellegenButcher1983.pdf

Masculinity, femininity, and androgyny viewed and assessed as distinct concepts.

Gender-role conflict and strain are part of contemporary society’s gender reevaluation. This gender reevaluation includes a critical assessment of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny as norms for optimal functioning in a rapidly changing society. Gender-role reevaluation is the process whereby men and women assess, maintain, and redefine their feelings, thoughts, and behaviors about their masculine, feminine, and androgynous roles. Gender-role reevaluation is also part of society’s concern with how the sexes interact and relate to each other. Currently, the sexes are asking questions about their gender-role definitions and how they have been emotionally affected or restricted by their socialization and sexism in their lives. From these gender reevaluations, many individuals are discovering gender-role conflicts and strains that emanate from early gender-role socialization and societal expectations related to the appropriateness of masculine and feminine roles. The reevaluation of gender roles is difficult for many to integrate into their emotional, career, and interpersonal lives and there is much struggle to incorporate new gender-role definitions without strain and conflict.

Pamela S. Highlen

Papers

Effects of Counselor Gender and Counselor and Client Sex Role on Females' Counselor Preference.

Effects of Situational Factors, Sex, and Attitude on Affective Self-Disclosure and Anxiety.

Effect of reflection of feeling and probe on client self-referenced affect.

Effects of Situational Variables on Affective Self-Disclosure with Acquaintances.

Content Analytic Comparison of Four Expert Counselors' Approaches to Family Treatment: Ackerman, Bowen, Jackson, and Whitaker.