Research involving perceived internal versus external control of reinforcement as a personality variable has been expanding at a rapid rate. It seems clear that for some investigators there are problems associated with understanding the conceptualization of this construct as well as understanding the nature and limitations of methods of measurement. This article attempts to discuss in detail (a) the place of this construct within the framework of social learning theory, (b) misconceptions and problems of a theoretical nature, and (c) misuses and limitations associated with measurement. Problems of generalityspecificity and unidimensionality-multidimensionality are discussed as well as the logic of predictions from test scores. Estimates of the number of published articles dealing with some aspect of internal versus external control of reinforcement (sometimes referred to as "locus of control") vary, but it is clear that there are well over 600 studies. The number of unpublished investigations, master's theses, and doctoral dissertations dealing with this topic are impossible to estimate. Most of these studies have been published in the last IS years, and there seems to be still an active, if not increasing, interest in the topic. The concept deals both with situational parameters and individual differences, although the bulk of the studies have been concerned with the latter. One can only speculate on the surprising popularity of this concept as a subject for psychological investigations. Interest in this concept surely must be related to some persistent social problems, which in turn are related to the tremendous growth in population, increasing complexity of society, and the subsequent feeling of powerlessness that seems to permeate all levels of society, at least in Western culture. The research referred to above has produced some important and some well-replicated findings. It has also produced a series of studies that appear to reflect a basic misunderstanding of the nature of the variables and measurement devices used to assess individual differences. It is Requests for reprints should be sent to Julian B. Rotter, Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268.

Some Problems and Misconceptions Related to the Construct of Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement

2 – differentiating among internality, powerful others, and chance

A brief review of the literature on structural analysis of interpersonal behavior is followed by a proposal which draws heavily from prior models, especially those of Schaefer and of Leary. The proposed model goes beyond previous ones in that it has a highly explicit structure which defines behavioral opposites, complements, and antidotes. Built on two axes named affiliation and interdependence, the model describes dyadic social interactions in terms of complementary proportions of those underlying dimensions. Opposite behaviors appear at 180° angles whereas complementary behaviors appear at topologically similar positions on two separate planes. Antidotes are defined as opposites of complements. Using the questionnaire method, the proposed structure has been tested by the responses of normal as well as psychiatric subjects. Analysis of these data by the techniques of autocorrelation, circumplex analysis, and factor analysis supports the model.

Structural analysis of social behavior.

Locus of control is an important variable for the explanation of human behavior in organizations . The nature of the concept, its measurement, and general evidence for its validity are discussed. Several hypotheses are presented involving the locus of control in an organizational context, and supporting evidence from applied studies is reviewed. Specifically, it is suggested that locus of control is related to motivation, effort, performance, satisfaction, perception of the job, compliance with authority, and supervisory style. Furthermore, locus of control may moderate the relation between incentives and motivation and between satisfaction and turnover. Little attention has been given to individual personality in research on job motivation and satisfaction. For the most part, the major theories in organizational psychology assume that the same basic processes account for behavior across all individuals and that situational characteristics cause predictable behavior across people.1 This article attempts to demonstrate the usefulness of personality in explaining human behavior in organizations and focuses on locus of control as it relates to behavior in organizational settings. The general theory of locus of control arose from observation and research in clinical psychology. Both the measurement and theory have been refined so that the concept is heuristically useful. Over two dozen studies of locus of control have been related specifically to attitudinal, motivational, and behavioral variables in organizational settings. One major task of this article is to integrate the general theory with the organizational findings.

Behavior in organizations as a function of employee's locus of control.

Internal-External Control in the Motivational Dynamics of Negro Youth.

Reliability and validity of internal-external control as a personality dimension.

Personal characteristics of college volunteers in mental hospitals.

LEE SECHRESTNorthwestern UniversityRONALD GALLIMOREBishop Museum, HonoluluAND PAUL D. HERSCHUniversity of ConnecticutThe investigation stems from a recommendation by Holt that clinicians shouldhave training which makes it possible for them to validate themselves asclinical predictors in much the same way as tests are cross-validated. 3 experi-ments were devised to provide feedback concerning accuracy of predictionsin the expectations that feedback could be used to improve performance. The"clinicians" studied were undergraduate students, and the prediction taskinvolved interpretation of short sentence-completion protocols. In all 3 experi-ments there was evidence for the superior performance of those Ss whoreceived feedback, but the bulk of the evidence suggested that the feedbackeffect was attributable to enhancement of motivation of the Ss rather than tospecific informational value.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ronald_Gallimore/publication/232534564_Feedback_and_accuracy_of_clinical_predictions/links/0c960524d5dbfdf887000000.pdf

Feedback and accuracy of clinical predictions1

http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/ccp/32/2/197.pdf

Paul D. Hersch

Papers

Reliability and validity of internal-external control as a personality dimension.

Personal characteristics of college volunteers in mental hospitals.

Feedback and accuracy of clinical predictions1

"Reliability and Validity of Internal-External Control as a Personality Dimension": Erratum.