Prefaces Acknowledgements 1. Mountains and their climatological study 2. Geographical controls of mountain meteorological elements 3. Circulation systems related to orography 4. Climatic characteristics of mountains 5. Regional case studies 6. Mountain bioclimatology 7. Changes in mountain climates Appendix General index Author index.

Mountain Weather and Climate

Advances in research of reclaimed water irrigation in China

Shorea robusta (Sal) Gaertn. F. a commercially and ecologically important forestry species of south Asia, is facing serious regeneration problem since last century. The continuously diminishing natural regeneration is associated with numerous abiotic and biotic factors, like edaphic, micro-climatic, physiological, genetic, anthropogenic, pathogens, insect-pests, etc. Following a good seed year and timely commencement of monsoon, Sal seeds germinate readily, and thousands of seedlings cover the forest floor. Subsequently, these get afflicted with die-back syndrome impeding shoot growth. Regular fire incidences during hot and dry season further aggravates the problem. Among biotic factors, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis , Cylindrocladium floridanum and Inonotus shoreae causes severe heartwood decay, blight and dieback leading to mortality. Moreover, over-exploitation, illegal felling, grazing, etc., have severely depleted the Sal forest. This review systematically explores the factors contributing to regeneration problem in S. robusta and opines appropriate silvicultural operations and management strategies for the conservation of Sal forests through SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis. We emphasized on the ecological aspects, soil characteristics, micro-climatic factors and importance of associated species to develop sustainable management regimes. Highlighting all facets of Sal regeneration problem and SWOT assessment, we suggest comprehensive weaknesses and threat perceptions to formulate strategies to seal the gaps.

A century old regeneration problem of Shorea robusta Gaertn. F. in south Asia: SWOT analysis (Review)

\n Water resources are the foundation of economic development, social progress and ecological security, and water shortage is the primary problem facing China. Water quotas have great practical significance for the resolution of water shortages to achieve sustainable use of water resources and sustainable development of the national economy. In this study, to analyse the problems and countermeasures of the water quota system in China, the water quota system progress domestically and abroad, the water quota problem in China, and the countermeasures for the water quota problem are summarized. The data validity test, spatial correlation test and consistency test are used to test the rationality of water use quota. And the specific countermeasures are presented: improving the water quota system, defining its concept, and revising its scheme, etc. This study provides the support to standardize water quotas and implement the effective water conservation policies of China.

Water quota system in China: problems and countermeasures

This study investigated and established the variation of soil nitrogen, total carbon and phosphorus across closed forest; crop-agriculture and livestock disturbed sites. The study provides useful information for local management strategies. It sets initial basic data on the soil status of Uzigua Forest Reserve after 50 years of crop-agriculture and livestock grazing pressure. Forty-seven (50 m × 50 m) quadrats were established on each land uses for soil samples collection. Total nitrogen was analyzed by Kjeldahl acid-digestion, total carbon by the Walkley-Black procedures and phosphorus by Bray-II method. The mean values (percentage) were nitrogen = 16.07 ± 0.34, 1.75 ± 0.25, 6.5 ± 0.20; carbon =14.48 ± 0.23, 11.81 ± 0.13, 12.24 ± 0.30; phosphorus =14.12 ± 6.57, 17.74 ± 3.96, and 13.31± 2.86 for closed forest; agriculture disturbed and grazed sites respectively. There was a slightly lower amount of total carbon on crop agriculture disturbed sites than on the livestock grazed land uses. Carbon-nitrogen ratio was higher in closed forests than in the disturbed sites. The relationship between forest degradation and soil nutrient status is an indication that the below-ground nutrient pools are mainly determined by activities, which disturb the above-ground components mainly vegetation. To restore soil fertility status, it is important to establish the management of the disturbed sites through restoration of vegetation and minimization of disturbances.

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Evaluation of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus in disturbed and intact tropical coastal forest sites in Tanzania

Scattered pockets of natural hill Sal forest in the southern foothills of Bhutan are the only remnant forests important for protection and conservation in southernmost Bhutan. The ecological study of Sal forest in Gomtu is the first of its kind in Bhutan and is aimed at enhancing future management and conservation programmes. We wanted to understand the floristic composition, diversity, and structural traits of this forest type in detail. A total of nine plots were sampled along the altitudinal gradients; trees and epiphytic vegetation were enumerated in all the plots. A total of 91 tree species belonging to 38 families were recorded (51 trees, 30 shrubs, 7 woody climbers and 3 palm species). Floristically, two major life-forms were exhibited; deciduous forest in the upper elevations mainly dominated by Shorea robusta and evergreen broad-leaved forest at the lower elevations. The entire study area was demarcated into three different forest types using cluster analysis; a Shorea dominant one on the ridge top, a Schima dominant one with Shorea at the lower altitudes, and a riparian one at the lowest altitude. The Shorea dominated type showed relatively low diversity and species richness compared to the other two types. The total basal area of Shorea robusta was 86,786.5 cm 2 /3,200 m 2 while the stem density was 123 stem/3,200 m 2 . The basal area increased from 2,146.2 cm 2 /400 m 2 to 18,926.0 cm 2 /400 m 2 while stem density increased from 3 stems/400 m 2 to 32 stems/400 m 2 with increasing altitude. However, the maximum estimated tree height decreased from 41.3 to 22.4 m approaching ridge tops. The study provided clear evidence that the most suitable range for the hill Sal forest was from a high altitude of 600 metre above sea level down to 527 m on northwest-facing ridge slopes.

Structure and Composition of the Natural Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertner f.) Forest, Gomtu, Southern Bhutan

Impact of developmental projects in the humid evergreen broad -leaved forest : wasabi pilot project at lamperi , western bhutan

The Cupressus tortulosa Griffith, which had been popularly known as Cupressus corneyana Carriere and Cupressus himalaica Silba, is locally known as Tsenden. There are knowledge gaps in the ecology and population dynamics of Tsenden. Using the Vegetation Survey method, this study focused on the population structure of the Tsenden along various altitudinal gradients, including its ecology and habitat within natural stands. The study was conducted at Tsendenanag of Taewang Geog, Punakha Dzongkhag. Nine designated plots (20 x 20 m) were set up, covering altitudes ranging from 1700 to 2700 m above sea level. Tsenden was the dominant species associated with Quercus lanata, Q. glauca, Pinus wallichiana, Myrsine semiserrata, with undergrowth consisting of Eurya acuminata, Rhododendron species, and bamboo – Yushania species. Tsenden was abundant on steep rocky precipices with a slope percent ranging from 49% to 80%, occupying the aspects of northeast, southeast, east, and southwest. In undisturbed areas, Cupressus regeneration was absent; whereas, profuse regeneration was observed in disturbed (fire and landslide) sites, indicating that a certain level of disturbance is required to initiate regeneration. At higher altitudes, species dominance changes from Cupressus to Q. glauca, P. wallichiana and Rhododendron species.

Pema Wangda

Papers

Structure and Composition of the Natural Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertner f.) Forest, Gomtu, Southern Bhutan

Impact of developmental projects in the humid evergreen broad -leaved forest : wasabi pilot project at lamperi , western bhutan

Population Structure of Cupressus tortulosa Griffith along the Altitudinal Gradients of Tsendenanag Ridge in Punakha, Bhutan